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STANDARD BLACKSMITHING, 
HORSESHOEING 

AND 

WAGON MAKING 

CONTAINING: 

Twelve Lessons in Elementary Blacksmithing, 
Adapted to the Demand of Schools 
and Colleges of Me- 
chanic Arts. 



Tables, Rules and Receipts Useful to Manufacturers, 
Machinists, Engineers and Blacksmiths. 



A Rational Treatise on Horseshoeing and the Anatomy of 

the Foot of the Horse, Suited to the Demand of 

Horseraisers, Veterinarians, Farriers 

and the Amateur Horseshoer. 



-BY- 



J. G. HOLMSTROM 
AUTHOR OF ^'MODERN BLACKSMITHING.*' 



PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED. 






] LIBRARY of CONGRESS 
Two Codes Received 
MAH n 1907 

/r- CoDVU^ht Entry ^ 

cuss A XXc, No. 

/ ^ f 2^^ 

CO Fir B. 



COPYRIGHT 1907 

BY 

WEBB PUBLISHING Ca 



SY 



•C\ 



PREFACE. 

The author of this book has been prompted by two rea- 
sons in the undertaking: First, the phenomenal sale of 
his first book, "Modern Blacksmithing" ; second, by the 
many letters asking for information on such work as was 
not treated in that book. 

People in general are not aware of the fact that, in 
our time of manufacture, blacksmithing is almost a lost 
art, for nearly everything formerly made by the smith is 
now turned out by machinery. I have never been in a 
community yet where I did not hear this remark about 
the smith : "Oh, he is a good smith ;" while the fact is, 
in manv instances, that there was not a real smith within 
hundreds of miles, and they might very appropriately have 
joined in the lamentation of old, "There is no smith found 
in all the land of Israel." 

I think I am safe in contending that not one out of a 
thousand smiths can make horse nails, which are the sim- 
plest articles formerly made by the smith. It takes the 
author only about three mnnutes in a shop to tell if the 
smith who stands behind the anvil is a real smith or a 
botch. It takes an educated graduate from a medical col- 
lege just that long to discover a fake doctor who has no 
education, but has crept into a profession he knows noth- 
ing about. Just so, the average smith has opened up his 
shop after a three-months apprenticeship, and in some 
cases not even having served that long ; but if the people 
but knew the difference, they would insist on an appren- 
tice law. As it is, we shall only modestly ask every pros- 
pective shop opener to study and learn, partly by heart, the 
teachings given in "Standard Blacksmithing, Horseshoe- 
ing and Wagonmaking," and we shall have a better class 
of smiths in the future. 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

Position at Anvil (correct) 7 

Position at Anvil (incorrect) 8 

Swinging the Sledge (correct position) 9 

Swinging the Sledge (incorrect position) lo 

Swinging the Sledge (correct position) ii 

Buffalo Blower No. 200 12 

Steel Plate Forge and Blower 13 

Buffalo Steel Pressure Blower, Noiseless 14 

Down Draft Forge I5 

Forge for Heavy Work IS 

Pointing a Rod 23 

Scarfing a Ring 24 

Lap-welding '^■1 

Iron Laps • 28 

Steel Laps 28 

Butt Weld 29 

Jump Weld 29 

T-Weld on Flat Iron 30 

T-Weld on Round Iron 30 

Incorrect Split Weld 30 

Correct Split Weld 3i 

Angle Weld 32 

Forging Nails '^2> 

Cutting Off Nails Z2> 

Making Chisels 34 

Cold Chisels 34 

Hot Chisels 34 

Hammers 35 

Making a Flatter 36 

Finished Flatter Z^ 

Swage Block 2i7 

Set Hammer Zl 

Swages 38 

Fullers ^ 38 

Hardie ' 38 

Round and Square Punches 39 

Heading Tools 39 



viii Illustrations 

PAGE 

Making Angles 40 

Making Tangs 41 

S-Wrenches 43 

Split Forging 44 

Primitive Drill 44 

Drill Press T 45 

Drills and Bits 46 

Tire Bender 48 

Setting an Axle 54 

Worn Axle from too Much Pitch 55 

Emery Wheels 70-71 

John Deere's First Plow 74 

John Deere 75 

Deere Co.'s Plant, Moline, 111 76 

Plow 200 Years Old .78 

Wheel Harrow 79 

Wh^el Plow 80 

Landside 80 

Plow Shares 81 

Welding Share and Landside 81 

Buffalo Punch 82 

Pointing a Share 85 

Eureka Grinder 86 

Emery Wheel 87 

Setting Wood Axles 88 

Clamps 

Gasoline Engine 92-93-94 

Shop Clock 95 

Small Forge 96 

Digestive Apparatus 99 

The Nervous System loi 

Plan of Shop 104 

System of Muscles • 106 

Foot 107 

Anatomy of Foot 108 

Sole of Foot 109 

Bolt Clipper =. no 

Skeleton of Horse 1 12 

Shoe Round at Toe 115 



Illustrations ix 

PAGE 

Shoe Pointed at Toe , iiS 

Right and Wrong Fitting 117 

Plugging Machine 119 

Calk Die 119 

Meyer Removable Calk Shoe 120 

Bryden Sideweight 121 

Bryden Goodenough 121 

Bryden Dropped Forged Shoe 122 

Bryden Shoe for Rubber Pads 122 

Nails 123 

Star Nails 124 

Foot with Split Nail in It 125 

Nail Properly Driven 125 

Hoof Rarer 126 

Shoeing Hammers 127 

Clinch Tongs 128 

Foot Rest 129 

Rasps 130 

Tool Box , 131 

Iron and Wood Vises 132, I33 

Pincers I34 

Root's Blower I34 

"Eagle" Anvil .....* 136 

Sideweight Shoe 138 

Shoeing for Interfering .' 138 

Shoe for Interfering I39 

Foot Prepared for Shoe in Interfering 139 

Sideweight 140 

Front Shoe for Interfering 140 

Shoe for Interfering 140 

Shoe for Cross-firing 141 

Fit Shoe ' 141 

Buffer 143 

Half-round Hardy ' . • I44 

Turned up Toe 14S 

Toe Weight of Lead 146 

Foot Leveler I47 

Racing Plates I47 

Racing Plates 148 



X Illustrations 

PAGE 

Racing Plates 149 

Pincers 150 

Sole Knife 151 

Straight Hardy 153 

Blacksmiths' Tongs 154 

Farriers' Tongs 154 

Hoof Tester 154 

Shoeing Knife 156 

Half-bar Shoe 157 

Quarter and Sand Cracks 159 

Plate for Sand Cracks 160 

Bar Shoe with Clasp 160 

Sound and Contracted Feet 163 

Open Bar Shoe 164 

Shoe to Spread One Side of the Hoof 166 

Foundered Feet 168 

Sling 170 

Shoe for Stifle 175 

Bi-treadle Grindstone 176 

Circulatory Apparatus 179 

Internal View of Chest 181 

Device for Holding Unruly Horses 183 

Schodorf's Shoeing Rack 184 

Wrong Method of Shoeing Hind Foot for Overreaching. .. 186 

Worn Hind Foot 186 

Shoe for Fore Foot Overreaching 187 

Shoe for Hind Foot Overreaching 187 

How to Shoe Hind Foot Overreaching 188 

Right Method for Front Overreaching 188 

Mule-shoe 190 

Ox-shoe 191 

Ox Rack 192 

Hammers i93, I94, I95 

Ring Bone and Navicular Diseases 197 

Spavin 199 

Bone Spavin 201 

Ring Bone 203 

Docking 204 

Rubber Shoes 205 



CHAPTER I. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

"If the iron be blunt, 
And he do not whet the edge, 
There must be put to more strength.** 

— Solomon. 

Only ten years ago, the blacksmiths, wagonmakers, and 
horseshoers who read a trade journal, or a book devoted 
to their trade, were few and far between. It is not what 
it ought to be now, but it is moving in the right direc- 
tion. 

What would a person think of the physician who boast- 
ed of the fact that he had never read or subscribed for a 
medical journal? We would not trust him to experiment 
with our health, much less place our lives in his hands, 
when we knew that the time spent by a medical student 
at the college is hardly enough to acquaint him with the 
names of the different diseases and herbs used for medi- 
cine. The healing of diseases is something he must learn 
through practice or experiment. Then, if he is too self- 
ish to profit by the experience of others, he must begin the 
experiments himself; and that means that many must die 
to make this man wise. We have this class of self-suffi- 
cient people in all walks of life ; and mark it down, they 
never will amount to much. There are mechanics who 
know all the latest rules and tricks of sport life, from prize 
fighting and foot ball down to solitaire, but they have 
never learned the A, B, C of their trade. These are, as a 
rule, the ''knockers," the men of ''great cry and little 
wooi," men who have mastered an "ism," — braggardism. 



2 Standard Blacksmithing 

But it is consoling to know that this species is dying out 
fast, for here, as everywhere else, "only the fittest will sur- 



vive." 



Solomon dubbed the blacksmith "father of all mechan- 
ics" ; and so he is, and he can point back to Tubal Cain as 
the first artificer in his trade. We would expect that 
followers of such a trade should stand at the head and 
in the lead, when it comes to intelligence and general 
knowledge, in comparison with other mechanics; but I 
am not sure that he does. Only 20 per cent, of the 
blacksmiths of the United States have read a book or a 
magazine devoted to their trade, and when we look at 
other countries it is worse yet ; but an awakening has be- 
gun, and I hope the smiths will remember to "strike while 
the iron is hot." 

Of course, trade journals should be read with discrimi- 
nation, for these papers are edited by men without prac- 
tical experience; hence we find many misleading articles 
appear from time to time. 

There is, so far, a lack of system in our trade. We 
have no authority. Every beginner imagines he is the 
best mechanic in the land, and what he does not know is 
not worth knowing. I often hear this remark from peo- 
ple in other walks of life : "He is a good mechanic ; he is 
the best blacksmith in the state ;" while the fact in many a 
case is that he is the biggest lubber and bungler in the 
state. I never saw a man, no matter how poor a black- 
smith, but what some one would think him a master in 
his trade. I hold that there is no trade where there is so 
great a per cent, of poor workmen as in the blacksmith's 
trade, because the blacksmith's trade is a hard trade to 
master, and, no matter how clever a young man might be, 



Introductory 3 

he will never be an all-around blacksmith in less than ten 
years, and many will never learn the trade. 

The blacksmith must not only be a mechanic, but he 
should also be an artist. The work m.ust be right in con- 
struction and beautiful in design. Then, when it comes to 
the working of highly carbonized steel, how few, how few, 
who know how to handle it without ruining it ! Then, 
again, the simple-looking process of welding. There 
are smiths whose good welds are accidental. Now, why 
is it so ? Because we have no system of learning the trade. 

After three months' apprenticeship with a bungler, 
many a young man hangs out his ''shingle" and adver- 
tises for work he never learned to do. The man who has 
not learned the elementary rules for a trade or a profes- 
sion will never be efficient. On the other hand, che man 
who has learned these rules has learned the A, B, C, he is 
on the right path, and time and perseverance will bring 
him out right. 

We visited the manual training school (slojd) in our 
city, not long ago, and when I left I felt sorry for both 
the scholars and taxpayers. These scholars imagine, now, 
that they are mechanics, since they are able to make a 
few articles ; but I hold that this training will harm them 
through life. They were pegging away like a woodpeck- 
er, without system or order. The positions of their bod- 
ies and of the handling of the tools were awkward and un- 
natural. If an old carpenter had been called in as a teach- 
er, he would soon have given them some instruction in 
this respect that would have been a help to them in after 
life. 

It will be our aim, therefore, to present a book that will 
be a beginning to a better system, or, rather, a beginning 
to a system. Wc shall begin with a series of lessons, giv- 



4 Standard Black smithing 

ing the elementary rules and steps necessary to successful- 
ly master the trade. 

HORSESHOEING. 

Horseshoeuig is a distinct trade, but to most people 
blacksmithing and horseshoeing are synonymous terms. 
There are thousands of smiths who have never nailed on 
or made a horseshoe, and there are a great number of 
horseshoers who cannot be termed "smiths" in that sense 
of the word, for their knowledge of blacksmithing is lim- 
ited to the fitting of horseshoes. Sometimes we find a 
clacksmith who is a fairly good shoer, but we shall never 
find a horseshoer who is a good blacksmith; but in the 
smaller towns and country shops the smith must practice 
both trades. 

In no other trade has there been such a great confusion 
in the last decade as in the horseshoer's. Every horse- 
shoer, with few exceptions, has his whim or hobby. They 
are mostly ''one-idea men." The shoe is shaped a little 
different at the heel, and that is it to one man. Another 
believes in side-weight shoes, another toe-weight shoes, 
another bar shoes ; and many have such faith in their fad 
that they can make any old nag compete with Dan Patch 
for championship of the world, and cure diseases of all 
kinds simply by shoeing with the right kind of shoes. From 
their talk, you are certain that they can subdue any dis- 
ease, from glanders to corns. And I warn the horse own- 
er against the toe-weight farrier, for he might put on such 
toe-weights in front that the front quarters of the horse 
might run away from the hind quarters. 

To follow all these whims would require a large volume 
alone, and we assure the mechanic or apprentice who 
wishes to know the facts that we shall not be guilty of any 



Introductory 5 

hobbyism of any kind, but give the rational ideas and facts. 
We do not believe in faith-cure shoeing. 

WAGON MAKING. 

Wagonmaking has also become an almost extinct trade 
outside of the large wagon factories ; and we meet a very 
old man, when we meet one who has made wagons. This 
trade, or what is left of it, is also performed mostly by the 
farrier or the smith ; and to tell the truth, the work is not 
always the best, for a jack of all trades is a failure. But 
when we have not the wagonmaker, and the work must be 
done, we must excuse the farrier or the smith for their 
shortcomings. In many cases, lack of knowledge is the 
cause of a poor piece of work. This volume will give the 
smith or farrier, as the case may be, information on such 
work, which is regarded as a trade secret with wagonmak- 
ers, and must be understood in order to make the wheels 
"go around." We shall begin with forging, and take up 
the different kinds of work that come within the scope of 
a modern blacksmith, horseshoer, and wagonmaker. 



CHAPTER II. 

"Now there was no smith found in all the land of Israel to make swor(?s 
and spears." — I Sam. 13, jp. 

Tools, and good tools, are the first essential to a me- 
chanic's success. The tools should be suited to the work. 
It is no use trying to make a square hole with a round 
punch. The tools should also be kept in good condition 
and in their places. The aphorism, **A place for every- 
thing and everything in its place," is very appropriate in 
regard to tools. Neither should we forget "that a man is 
known by the company he keeps," and ''a mechanic by the 
tools he uses." 

Tools, now-a-days, are mostly bought. The smith even 
buys his tongs and chisels ; but it is so in regard to almost 
everything that is used by the smith in his trade. It is 
ready made, and sold by the manufacturers. The result 
is that we have smiths who are not smiths. 

I often meet young, unthinking smiths who boastingly 
ask : "What would the old-fashioned smith do if he could 
come back and had to do our work ? He would not be in 
it, would he?" The old-time smith, if he could come back 
and see the manufactured tools, and all the articles he used 
to make by hand sold ready made to the smith, he would 
evidently exclaim: "How easy; no smithing about it. 
Just put it together ; it is all ready made." 

LESSON I. 

The first thing for the amateur smith, as well as the 
apprentice, to learn, is how to use the tools ; also how to 



Lessons I-V 7 

place them. Most of our blacksmith shops lack order. 
The forge and the anvil are so crowded together that it is 
almost impossible to get in edgewise between them. And 
in most cases the anvil is placed too high. The distance 
between the fire — not the forge — and the anvil should be 
from six to seven feet. The anvil should be just high 
enough to toudi the knuckles of the smith's hand when it 




Fig. 1. Correct Position. 

is closed and the smith stands erect at the anvil. This will 
give the right height for all smiths. 

The anvil block should be a square block, the size of the 
foot of the anvil, and not like the chopping block in a butch- 
er shop, as we often find. Nothing can be more awk- 
ward than a large block with all kinds of tools on — the 
anvil in the center, and the smith stretching out in a half 
circle, trying to reach out far enough to reach the anvil. 



8 



Standard Blacksmithing 



When we see a mechanic with these arrangements, we 
know he is rated in the third class. 

Correct position and composure of the body must be 
attained — First, forthe ease it gives in performing the work 
second, it lends grace to the movements, which we should 
strive to gain, for it is very painful to look at an awkward 
mechanic, and such a workman will never succeed as well 




Figure 2. Incorrect Position. 

as the easy workman, whose movements are both correct 
and graceful. 

In looking at Fig. i, p. 7, you see a smith with free and 
easy position. Fig. 2 is the opposite to this. Here is a third- 
class man. Just mark his awkwardness. He presses his el- 
bows against his rib. When you see a smith of this kind, 
you can rest assured he would not command a very high 
salarv if he were to work for another, for he is a ''bundle 



Lessons I-V 9 

carrier" ; that is, he squeezes his arms against his sides as 
if he were afraid he would drop something. It is general- 
ly the case that he also turns his toes in, forming a tri- 
angle. 

LESSON II. 

THE SLEDGE. 

The right use of the sledge is important. The helper 
should stand in front of the smith and anvil, and not to 




Fis 



Correct Position. 



one side. When we see a helper standing either at the 
butt or the horn-end of the anvil, we know that he has 
not received the first lesson in striking. 

In Europe it is customary to hold the sledge so that 
the handle will be under the arm,— the right or left, as the- 
case may be. In this position, it is impossible to strike 
hard or endure, for the helper must first put one arm 



lO Standard Black smithing 

around to the other side, which is an unnatural position. 
Let the apprentice take hold of the sledge handle in such 
a manner that the hind hand will hold at the extreme end 
of the handle, and the fore hand slide up and down as it 
best suits, to make the work easy. See Fig. 3. Another 
position must be taken in swinging the sledge. The ap- 




Figure 4, Swinging the Sledge. Incorre ct Position. 

prentice should take hold of the extreme end of the sledge 
with both hands, and let the sledge describe a perpendicu- 
lar circle. After the sledge has struck the iron on the 
anvil, it should drop straight down to the floor. See Fig. 

4A. 

THE FIRE. 

A poor smith makes a poor fire, and a poor fire makes 
a poor weld, and a poor weld makes a poor job. It is a 



Lessons I-V 



II 



fact that very few smiths have learned the art of makhig 
a good fire. First clean out all clmkers and cinders ; then 
take some shavings and set them on fire; let them burn 
well down; then take a handful of dry, small green or 
fresh coal, and sprinkle this on top of the almost burned- 
down shavings; now start the blast, but blow lightly, as 
a strong blast would blow out the fire ; now add some coke, 
and, on top of that, wet coal; then pack them tightly to- 




Figure 4A. Correct Swinging. 

gether. This will make the coal solid, and prevent the 
fire from spreading. Another way is to place a wooden 
block the size of the fire wanted on the tuyer, and pack 
around it wet coal ; then pull out the block, and start the 
fire in this hole. If the flame is of a yellow color, look out, 
for then the fire is not fit for welding. If the fire smells 



12 



Standard Blacksinithin} 



of sulphur, it is also a poor fire. When the fire spreads 
out too wide, and you notice a lot of fine coal dust or 
grains in the fire, it is also a poor fire. Do not let the 
fire grow hollow or empty, for the wind will then blow 
directly on the iron, causing it to scale. This is termed 




Buffalo Blower. No. 200. 



"oxidizing fire." Too much wind will in every case pro- 
duce an oxidizing fire. When the blast or air comes in 
contact with hot iron, it forms oxide or scales. Much 



Lessons I-V 13 

oxide makes a rough surface, and prevents fusing. Make 
the fire large enough. Many smiths are too saving with 
the coal. The iron to be heated is almost in touch with 
the tuyer. The result is that it will not heat, but produce 
scales. ■ Let the fire be so deep that the iron to be heated 
rests from three to eight inches f romx the tuyer, with plenty 
of coke between. If the fire has a tendency to spread and 
grow large, it is because the coals are in large pieces 
or poorly packed. In either case, pack the fire and keep it 




Figure 5A. 

wet by sprinkling water around it. Good coal, of course, 
is another requisite for a good fire. Good blast is also es- 
sential. Buffalo Forge Co., Buffalo, N. Y., makes the 
best blowers, as well as many other tools and machines 
which I shall mention later. 

I used to think that the old-fashioned bellows could not 
be beat for blast, because many of the so-called blowers 



H 



Standard Blacksmithmg 



failed to be what was promised from them, but we now 
have a blower that blows, and does it easy. Every 
smith who needs a hand blower should have a '^Buffalo 
Hand Blower No. 200." This is the easiest blower I know 
of. I cheerfully recommend it to every smith. I don't know 
how many bellows the different apprentices in my emoloy 
exploded, but it was quite a number. The "Buffalo Blow- 




Noiseless. 



er" is "fool proof" ; it can't be exploded. Ask your dealer 
for it. 

In Fig. 5A, a modern steel plate forge and blower, the 
Buffalo, is showUo This forge is portable ; can be placed 



Lessons I-V 



wherever wanted in a shop. 
an ornament to any shop. 



It is reasonably cheap, and 
For power, and where the 




Figure 5C. 

blast is to supply several forges, the "Buffalo Steel Pres- 
sure Blower, Noiseless," should be used. 




Figure 5D. 

Fig. 5C is the latest invention in down-draft forges. In 
these forges the smoke is sucked down by the draft, and 



1 6 Standard Blacksmithing 

chimneys are done away with. Fig. 5D is another forge 
or furnace for heavy work under steam hammers, or when 
many pieces at a time are to be heated. 



LESSON III. 

IRON. 

Iron is the most useful of the metalHc elements. Metal- 
lic iron in a more or less pure condition is occasionally 
found in nature, but this supply is very small. As Tubal 
Cain was an instructor in working iron, we can surmise 
that this metal was known before his time, and it is almost 
certain that Cain knew of it when he invented weights 
and measures in the first city of which he was the founder. 
The iron thus used or worked was of the kind just men- 
tioned. The period when iron was first extracted from its 
ore is not known, but we know that it was known in the 
remotest time of the history of man, from the tools and 
weapons found. The earliest melhod of extracting iron 
from its ore consisted in placing lumps of ore in a fire of 
wood or charcoal, and, after a more or less complete re- 
duction, the spongy metal thus formed was hammered and 
shaped. 

The Assyrians used iron very much. Saws, knives, and 
other tools have been found at Nineveh. Many of these 
tools are much like tools of the present day. Homer re- 
fers to the forging of iron. That a Crude bellows was 
used in the forging of iron is proved by the figures in 
Egyptian sculpture of more than 1500 years B. C. Pliny, 
about 50 A. D., describes the making of iron and steel. 
That they had then been experimenting in the art of tem- 
pering is evident from the fact that he claims that the re- 



Lessons I-V 17 

suit of the tempering of steel is dependent on the nature 
of the water used, and he explains that oil in some cases 
was better than water. 

The best iron is manufactured in Sweden. There is 
found good ore, and charcoal is used in the extraction of 
the iron from the ore ; therefore Swedish iron is the best, 
and makes the best steel. We have, in spite of the great 
improvements, still a very poor grade of iron in this coun- 
try. We have "cold-short" and "hot-short" iron. Sul- 
phur in the iron when hot makes it brittle, and phosphorus 
makes it brittle when cold. This explains the cause for 
some iron breaking when we try to form a link of hot iron, 
while the same iron will not break if bent cold, and vice 
versa. 

LESSON IV. 

STEEL. 

There are many kinds of steel, but to the general black- 
smith only two kinds are known, — "mild steel" and "tool 
steel." The mild steel is fast taking the place of iron. In 
some instances it is cheaper, and it is certainly giving bet- 
ter results than iron. The mild steel is easily worked 
and welded, as it stands a higher heat than the harder 
steel. Sand is the only welding compound needed to weld 
mild steel. 

The finer steel must be handled with great care, and few 
are the smiths who know how to heat highly carbonized 
steel. We often hear the remark, when a tool breaks, 
"He didn't harden it right." No hardening will prevail 
in an overheated tool, and the hardening and tempering of 
a tool is comparatively easy when the steel has not been 
overheated. The trouble begins when the smith places 
the steel in the fire. If it is a thin edge, the danger is 



1 8 Standard Blacksmithins^ 



i> 



greater than in a heavier piece. There is danger of over- 
heating the outside edges before the center part is hot 
enough to work. High grade steel is also ruined by keep- 
ing it long in the fire at a high heat ; thus the fiber of the 
steel is ruined and the carbon burned out. The higher the 
percentage of carbon, the more difficult is it to weld, and 
that for two reasons : First, such steel cannot be heated 
to a high heat ; and second, there is less fusing material — 
slag and cinders — in this kind of steel, hence it is often 
necessary to use some kind of welding compound in weld- 
ing it. Good steel breaks easily when cold, if cut into 
a little. It will also crumble under the hammer when 
white hot. 

If the broken ends of a steel bar are of a fine grain and 
light color, the steel is good. Glistening and glittering 
coarse grains are a sign of poor steel. Alloy steel is used 
for crushing machinery, and for armor plate, and also 
for machinery where the friction is high. For alloy is 
used chrom.ium, manganese, and tungsten. 

ANNEALING. 

Highly carbonized steel is often found too hard to file 
or drill without annealing. To reduce brittleness and in- 
crease flexibility, annealing must be resorted to. The 
simplest, yet most effective, method is to heat the steel 
slowly until red hot, then bury it in the cinders, and l^-.t it 
cool slowly. If a piece of fine steel is heated and exposed 
to the air in cooling, it will cool too fast, especially in cold 
weather, and contract what is termed *'air temper." 

Cast iron is sometimes found to be too hard to drill be- 
fore it is annealed; then a different method of annealing 
must be used. Heat to a low, red heat. Place a piece of 



Lessons I -V. 19 

brimstone just where the hole is to be ; this will soften the 
iron if it is left to cool slowly, as in annealing steel. 



WELDING CAST IRON. 



r 



I don't believe I have met a blacksmith vet who could 
not weld cast iron, but I shall never meet the man who 
really can do it. ^ There is no such thing as welding cast 
iron, and I offered $25 for a recipe to weld cast iron, in 
my book ''Modern Blacksmithing," but so far I have had 
no response. Cast iron will melt and crumble before a 
welding heat is attained. It might, however,, be melted to- 
gether; but if such a thing could be done, it would gen- 
erally leave the casting so melted together shorter, and 
consequently leave it in a different shape, and then it 
would be of no value. When a smith tells you he welds 
cast iron, you need not say he is lying, for he has evidently 
succeeded in "sticking" a piece of malleable iron together, 
and imagined it was cast iron. The wish, in such a case, 
then, was the father of the thought. Fine malleable steel 
is sometimes a very good article, and can easily be welded. 

LESSON V. 

HARDENING. 

We shall begin the experiment in hardening with the 
simplest tool, — a chisel. We suppose you must dress the 
chisel first; then be careful, for the trouble begins with 
tool steel the moment you place it in the fire. Now place 
the chisel in the fire, far in, so the extreme edge will reach 
over the hottest place in the fire, — that is, the center, — 
otherwise you are liable to burn, the edge, as it is thin, and 
is liable to be too hot before the rest of the chisel is hot 
enough ; and if the edge is heated to a white heat, you bet- 
ter cut it off, for it matters little how you temper it, if 



20 Standard Blacksmithing ■ 

it is overheated. Steel for edge tools should not be ham- 
mered much on the edge, as this hammering is liable to 
crush the fiber. When the chisel is dressed, and you are 
ready to harden, proceed as follows : Place it in the fire 
and heat slowly. When it is of a dark red heat on a 
bright day, it is hot enough. In the dark this heat will 
look many degrees hotter. This you should always re- 
member in hardening of all kinds. The temperature of 
the water should be taken into consideration. If the 
water is ice cold, the heat should be lower, and vice versa. 
For hardening of all edge tools, water is the best. When 
your chisel is of the right heat, stick it into the water an 
inch, or in proportion to the range of the heat and of the 
tool. When cool enough, take it out, and rub it with an 
emery cloth or a piece of a grindstone, or anything that 
will brighten it so that you can easily discern the color 
as the temper is drawing. 

For a cold chisel, let die temper go back until it turns 
blue ; but here be quick, for as soon as it is blue, stick it in 
the water. A moment's delay will make it too soft. 

For a "hot cutting" chisel, the temper may be a little 
harder. This blue temper is right for all cutting tools. 
If you dip the tool in the water just when the blue color 
reaches the edge, and then pull it out while it is yet siz- 
zling, you will notice, while it is yet wet, a copper color 
under the water at the extreme edge. Then you will 
know it is plenty hard for even wood-cutting tools, if 
you have the right kind of steel. 

BRAZING. 

In brazing anything, the joints should be filed clean, 
and fitted snugly together; then have the brass, in thin 
pieces, placed over the joint; then a little borax on top. 



Lessons I-V 21 

The article should then be placed in a clean fire, the heat 
striking directly over the joint. When the brass is melt- 
ed, take it out of the fire and cool off. 



CHAPTER III. 

"A bad workman quarrels with his tools." 

LESSON VI. 
FORGING. 

"Strike while the iron is hot/' is an old and well-known 
proverb ; but I have coined a new maxim, "Strike till the 
iron gets hot." It is true that, in forging, we can do lit- 
tle 'with cold iron, but with smaller articles wq can pound 
the heat into them. Take a piece of Swede iron or mild 
steel, — a quarter-inch rod, for instance, — and point it out 
fast over the edge .of the anvil, and if the rod is ice 
cold in the start, it will take but a few seconds before it is 
of a high red heat. The spectacle is worth the trouble. 

The first step in forging should be to point a rod over 
the edge of the anvil. It takes a good smith to be able 
to point a rod of American iron without splitting the iron 
into a brush shape on the point. When you have pointed 
the rod, you will find that the sides — for it should be a 
square point — are not square ; and why are they not ? 
For two reasons ; you have not turned the iron to the right 
angle, or you have not held the hammer to the right angle. 
I advise all new beginners to practice until they can ham- 
mer out a square point with right angles. When you 
have learned to sharpen or point a piece of quite poor iron 
without splitting the point, then you will also be able to 
hammer the red heat into a piece of mild steel or Swede 
iron. In pointing or sharpening anything, hold the hand 
with the rod a good deal higher than the anvil, and let the 




Lessons VI -VII I 23 

end of the iron rest on the outer edge of the anvil. See 
Fig. 7. 

MAKING RINGS AND LINKS. 

Bend the iron to a U-shaped piece. 
Both ends should be of the same 
length. Then place on the anvil, and 
scarf the ends, as shown in Fig. 8. 
You will note how the ends are scarf- 
ed with the flat cross pene of the ham- 
Figure 7. mQV, When a round pene hammer is 
used, the link or ring has to be placed over the edge of the 
anvil, in order to scarf the ends ; but this is more trouble- 
some, and, for that matter, a round pene hammer is more 
of an ornament than of practical value to a smith. Still, 
you can't convince a smith whO' is fascinated with the 
round pene hammer until you put him alongside of an- 
other smith where different kinds of repair work is done, 
and he finds that he is not ''in it" to turn the work out 
fast. The round pene is of very little value anyway. It 
^is supposed to be for riveting purposes, but even for that 
the face end of a hammer is better; for if the rivet is of 
common iron, the round pene will split the rivet, and it will 
crumble, while the face of the hammer will keep it to- 
gether. The flat pene hammer is the hammer for the 
smith. The trouble with the hammers used by most 
smiths is that they are made too short, and with a too wide 
face, which takes too much friction going through the air ; 
and where the face is wide and level, the corners only will 
hit, and mar the work with dents. 

The hammer should be high, the face not too large and 
a little rolling-convex. Place the link or ring on the anvil 




24 Standard Blacksmithing 

and scarf as shown in Fig. 8. 
When one end has been scarfed, 
turn the link over, and scarf the 
other end, and the scarfs will then 
be on opposite sides, which makes 
a snug fit when lapped over each 
other. Now turn the link over 
the horn, and weld. In making 
chains, two links are welded sep- 
arately and the third will be welded in between, and link 
them together. Links, rings, and washers are made on 
the same principle. 

LESSON VIL 

WELDING. 

Wrought iron and steel will fuse when the proper tem- 
perature and the right quality of the temperature is at- 
tained. We often read in the trade journals and in books, 
''Iron or steel will weld when hot enough ;" but the metal 
may be hot enough, be of the proper heat, and still It will 
refuse to fuse. Then there must be something besides the 
degree of heat to consider, and that is the ingredients or 
quality of the heat. Such as the fire is, such the heat. 
If the fire is full of small cinders and sulphur, you try any 
degree of heat you wish, and there will be no weld ; and if, 
perchance, you will be able to make it "stick," it will be a 
poor weld, that will break at the first strain. Iron as well 
as steel will burn, and if overheated will make a poor 
weld. The heat at which iron will weld is the melting 
heat. When the scales which are formed on the iron melts, 
the pieces will stick together. But the scales or oxide may 
not melt even at a high heat. For instance, if the iron is 
held too close to the tuyer, and the blast strikes directly 



Lessons VI -VI II 25 

on the iron, or the coal or coke may have burned out, so 
you have a hollow fire, then the air will also strike the 
iron and form black scales, preventing the scales from 
melting.^ Too much blast may be the cause in some in- 
stances. A trained eye will tell at a glance whether the 
fire is a fire for welding or not. If the iron is burnt, there 
will be a lot of sizzling sparks issuing from it, and the sur- 
face is rough and dry. In this kind of a heat there is no 
fusing quality. Sand is the best welding flux for iron. 
It will form a glue-like coating, and promote the dissolu- 
tion of the oxide. If the parts — iron or steel — that are to 
be welded together be of a large dimension, it is best to 
heat slowly, for otherwise the outside might be too hot 
while the center is still too cold. This lower temperature 
in the center will chill the outside when the iron is placed 
on the anvil, and thus spoil the weld. 

Not only in welding, but for all kinds of forging, it is 
important to have all tools in their proper places, and the 
apprentice should be taught to be careful not to take any 
tools away from the forge's tool bench. This often hap- 
pens in a repair shop, and it is very annoying to have tak- 
en much pains in producing a good weld, and then, when 
you place it on the anvil, you find that the hammer has 
been used by some one and left somewhere in the shop. 

Steel of a high per cent, of carbon is more difficult to 
weld than iron or mild sted. If fine steel is heated until 
the sparks appear, it is ruined and the best thing to do is 
to cut the burnt part off. Highly carbonized steel cannot be 
welded without a flux, because it cannot be heated to a heat 
to melt the scales without burning, if no fluid is used. In 
welding steel, beware of the oxidizing fire. That does not 
necessarily mean too much blast; it may mean too little 
blast, or it may mean a hollow, dirty fire also. Borax is 



2.(i Standard Blacksmithing 

the most used flux for welding fine steel. It has two of- 
fices : First, to help melt the scales ; second, it prevents 
burning and oxidizing, by covering the steel with a glue- 
like coating. This coating keeps the air from coming in 
contact with the steel, and thus much mischief is prevent- 
ed. The flux does not act as a glue; it promotes the 
melting of the oxide. And although an oxidizing fire is a 
bad fire, there could be no weld without it, for this oxide 
is simply a thin coat of iron ; and when this iron is melted, 
that, and that alone, is the cement that has the power to 
unite the two pieces, as it is "flesh of the same flesh.'' 

Steel borings are often used in welding steel. If these 
borings can be placed between, it will aid materially in 
making the two pieces stick, as it will not slip so easily 
when these chips gripe in the steel. All kinds of welding 
would be easy if we could find coal free from sulphur. 

LESSON VIII. 

THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF WELDS. 

There are seven kinds of welds, and we shall now con- 
sider each kind separately, 

Fagot-Welding, 

Fagot-welding was much practiced by the smith In 
times past. When one piece of iron is not large enough 
for the work, two or more pieces are laid on top of each- 
other and welded together. Sometimes many small pieces 
are put up in a bundle, and held to^jether with wire. It 
was claimed by the old-time gunsmith that a gun barrel 
made from old horse shoes, or, better yet, from old horse 
nails, would make the best gun. In such a case, these 
pieces were fagot-welded. We do very little of that kind 



Lessons VI -VI II 27 

of welding now. If the size we have on hand is not 
large enough, we send for the right dimension. 

Lap-lVeld. 

The lap-weld is the most used, and it is also the easiest 
and the strongest weld, if it is properly done. 

The first thing to do in preparing for a lap-weld is to 
upset the ends to be lap-welded. The upsetting can be 
done in different ways, — either by hammering the stock 
back, in preparing the lap (see Fig. 9), or by butting the 

end of the iron 'against the 
anvil. The material should 
be a good deal heavier over 
and behind the lap before it 
is welded than what it is to 
be when welded. If the 
Figure 9. pieces are simply scarfed 

without upsetting, it will make a weak weld, and a meager 
looking weld : for the stock will then be smaller over the 
weld than in the rest of the bar, and that is just the kind 
of welds every new beginner makes. It is always the saf- 
est to have plenty of stock for the lap; for if it is, the 
weld can be forged down so that it is impossible to detect 
the place of the weld. This can be done only where there 
is material enough. 

The scarf should be made convex, not concave ; if the 
scarf is concave, there will be scales or cinders and air in 
the pocket formed, and there will never be a solid, strong 
weld. See Fig. lo. 

In placing the iron on the anvil for the weld, let the ap- 
prentice hold his piece so that the extreme end does not 
come in contact with the anvil, and the smith should rest 
his piece over the opposite corner of the anvil, so as to 




28 Standard Blacksmithing 

guide it in placing his piece in position over the other; 
for it is not so easy to place this piece right, and if it is 
not placed right, and let down on the other, where it is 
liable to stick, it will be almost impossible to get it loose 
and replace it before the weld is too cold. See Fig. lo. 




Figure 10. 

This lap or scarf is all right for iron, but for mild or 

harder steel another scarf is 

sometimes better, for it is more 

Figure 11. gure to grip. See Fig. ii.. 

It is difficult to teach how to find the proper welding 

, heat in any other way than by an object lesson, and then 

the apprentice must be humiliated by many failures before 

he is able to make a good wejd. 

In all lap-welds the ends must be scarfed, — that is, 
pointed to a sharp edge, — in order to get a strong weld. 
In cheap blacksmithing and such light work as hub rings, 
etc., the weld is often taken without the scarfing; but 
in every case when this is done you will find that the 
square ends will cut into the stock, and weaken the weld 
considerably. You may be able to do cheap work that 
way, but not good work. 

Butt-Weld, 

The butt-weld, although not the strongest. Is often 
a very convenient weld. In this weld, the pieces are 
butted together without scarfing. It comes handiest in 
heavy round material, and the ends are rounded, as shown 



Lessons VI -VI II 29 

in Fig. 12. If the ends are convex when welded, the weld 

will start in the center, and force any foreign matter 

out. On the other hand, if the ends are concave, it will 

form a pocket where cinders, scales, 

and gas will form, and a good 

strong weld is then impossible. Figure 12. 

If the bars are long enough, the weld is most easily tak- 
en in the fire ; that is, it is started while the bars are in the 
fire. The helper holds one end with a sledge up against 
the end of the bar, while the smith holds the other end 
from the opposite side of the forge, and strikes with a 
heavy hammer on the end. When the weld is sufficiently 
forced together, the bar is taken out and placed on the an- 
vil, where it is forged down and smoothed up. In a butt- 
weld there is a deep seam where the ends meet, and the 
ends must be upset so much in welding that there will be 
material enough to work down on and smooth the weld. 
If the pieces are short, they must be welded out of the 
fire, standing the ends in an upright position. 

Jump-Weld. 

The jump-weld is simply another form of the butt-weld. 
This weld should not be resorted to by any but an experi- 
enced smith, for it is a very difficult weld to make, and, 
if not properly made, will prove of little value. The bar 
welded to a flat or wider piece should be upset till it flares 
out in a flange-like shape ; and the wider the flange or foot, 
the better. When both pieces have the 
proper heat, strike on the end of the 
bar a few blows; then finish up with 
the fuller, — not the set hammer as 
some third-class smiths do ; for the set 
hammer has sharp corners, and will Figure 13. 




30 



Standard Blacksmithlnz 



spoil both the looks and the strength if it is used here. 
Let me say in this connection that the set hammer should 
be used sparingly in all forging. The fuller is in most 
cases the better tool. 

T-Weld. 

T-weld is another form of the butt-weld, and is also 
a difficult weld, comparatively. Still this weld is easily 
mastered. When the T is to be from flat iron, scarf the 
bar on the edge where the weld is to be, and the other 
bar is to be scarfed on the end. This is the weld used on 




Figure 14. 




Figure 15. 



our "fill iron." See Fig. 14. If the T is to be made of 
round or square material, scarf and prepare as in Fig. 
15. In Fig. 14, No. I is placed on top of No. 2 as far as 
the dotted lines indicate. In Fig. 15 the one end is 
grooved over the horn of the anvil, and the other is up- 
set over the point where the T is to be welded. 

Split-Weld. 

In thin stock, it is often difficult for a less clever weld- 
er to weld the pieces together, 




and in such a case a split weld, ]> 

like Fig. 16, can be made. This 

is the weld all third-rate smiths ^^^ure 16. 

use in welding tire, but no experienced tire welder will ever 




Lessons VI -VIII 31 

resort to such a method. For heavy stock, especially in 
highly carbonized steel, a split weld is the best. In pre- 
paring the iron or steel bars to be welded b> this method, 
proceed as follows : First upset the pointed end, and pre- 
pare as is shown in Fig. 17. You will notice some 
notches in the scarfed point. Then cool this piece off. 
Next prepare the split end by upsetting, either before it is 
split or after, by fullering it in the fork. Now heat the 

forked end quite hot, but leave 
the pointed end cold. By so 
doing, the cold prongs in the 
Figure 17. pointed end will penetrate into 

the hot ends of the forked end, and hook the pieces to- 
gether, so that it can be handled in any shape or manner, 
and they will not come apart. In closing up the fork, 
have the helper strike hard blows with a twelve pounder. 
If there should be any crevices at the point of the inside 
end, as there is liable to be, make a wedge and drive it in 
to fill this hole ; for if any little crack is left open, cinders 
are liable to be blown in between, and spoil the weld. 
Next prepare to weld. Have a clean and large enough 
fire, and heat slowly, for the inner piece will not heat so 
fast as the outside. If steel, be careful not to burn the 
outside lips. Have a light hammer with a long handle to 
"stick" the lips in the fire with ; that is, the thin ends of the 
forked end should be welded while the piece is yet in the 
fire. Then place on the anvil, and let one or two helpers 
come down on it with a heavy sledge. 

Angle-Weld. 

Angle-weld is one of the easiest welds to make. Sim- 
ply pene out the corners as shown in A in Fig. 18. The 
leg B should be pened out the same way. Place A on top 



32 



Standard Blacksmithing 




of B, and weld. When a piece of angle iron is wanted 
this is the quickest and strongest way to make one. 

Circles. 

SupfKDse a band is wanted around 
a round object, the diameter being 
six inches, and the stock to be half 
an inch thick. To find the length 
required to bend anything when 
the stock is not over one-half inch thick in the band, mul- 
tiply the diameter by 3, and add three thicknesses of iron 
which is taken up in bending and one thickness for the 
weld. That is, to band an object six inches in diameter 
with half-inch thick iron, 

6 times 3 is 18 

Four thicknesses of iron 2 



Figure 18. 



20 inches 
In bending a band, it will be observed that the inner 
side of the curve is shortened or upset, while the outer 
side is stretched and is consequently a little longer. 



CHAPTER IV. 



•'The eye of the master does more work than both his hands.** 

LESSON IX. 

The making of horse nails is a good exercise while 
learning the elementary steps in forging. Get a nail rod 
3/16x1/2 inch Swedish iron or mild steel. Point the rod, 
or draw out the nail to the length desired. Then place the 
rod edgewise on the anvil, with the rod over the inside 
edge of the anvil. Now strike with the hammer in such a 
manner that the face of the hammer, with its center, hits 
over the edge of the anvil, thus making a 
shoulder for the head. See A, Fig. 19. 
Then place the nail over the hardie where 
the dotted line indicates, and cut off. B, 
Fig. 19, is another kind of nail, called the 
"calk nail." This nail is made in the same 
manner as nail A, and when the head is 
forged the nail is placed on the anvil as 
shown in Fig. 20, and the point bent back. When this 
nail is cut off as indicated by the dotted line in Fig. 19, it 
will make a diamond shaped head, which will act as a 
calk. When the calks on the 
shoe get dull, a couple of nails 
can be pulled out, and a few 
of these calk nails driven in, 
and the horse is sharp-shod 
again. 

CHISELS. 




A B 

Figure 19. 




Figure 20. 



Take a i^-inch square bar of tool steel, — not mild 



34 



Standard Blacksmithing 



steel, — and punch a hole three inches from the end. The 
punch for the punching of the hole should be made of i^x 
y2 tool steel, pointed to the size of ^x^ on the end. In 
punching the bar, you will find that the punch is liable to up- 
set and stick in the steel. To prevent this, place a little cinder 
or a coal the size of a bean in the hole, and the punch will not 
stick. When the punch has penetrated far enough to 
make a mark on the opposite side, turn the steel over, and 
punch from that side. This done, put the bottom fuller 
in the hole of the anvil, and place the steel over, so that the 
inside of the fuller is about half an inch from the bottom 

f"""'^ ~j|^^H| |^ g|Pj|l|P,,.llllli j^ chisel, and the top fuller 

*• [^^^ ^=:^:=^^:t^/ right over it. Now make 

Figure 21. Chisel. a groove all around, as 

shown in Fig. 21. This 

done, draw out as indicated by the lines, to make a hot 

chisel. For a cold chisel, 

let that be a little heavier 

all through from the edge 

down. Next cut off and 

draw the head down a lit- 
tle, as indicated by dotted 

lines. Harden and draw 

the temper to a blue hue 

for cold chisel, and with a 

shade of coffee color for a 

hot chisel. 



CUTTING CHISELS 




COLD 




HOT 



CROSS-PENE HAMMER. 

In making hammers and punches, we start by making 
the eye. First punch with a punch }ixi%, tapered to 
about HxJ/s after the hole is started. Have an oval punch 
the size of the hole. Drive this into the middle of the 



Lessons IX-XII 



35 



punch. Then fuller out as shown in No. i, Fig. 22. 
Next place the eye of the hammer made over the bottom 
fuller, with the top fuller on the top side, and fuller out 
as shown in No. 2, Fig. 22. This leaves the forging like 
No. 3 after the eye is rounded off. Now, if you want the 
hammer round over the eye, place the punch in the eye 
when the hammer is hot, and upset against the anvil ; then 
smooth off with a small flat hammer, — not the set ham- 




Figure 2' 



mer, as new beginners do. The set hammer has a square 
face and corners, and is not fit to use in forging. Next 
draw out the pene as shown in No. 4, and round up the 
face. When finished, harden the face end first to a yel- 
low straw color, about to shift to a coffee color. The 
pene should be drawn to a blue color. In heating the 
pene, place a wet rag around the face end of the hammer, 
if you think it is hot enough to draw the temper. 



36 



Standard Blacksmithing 

FLATTER. 



In making flatters, upset the end of the steel until it is 
flared out to the size wanted. The material for the flat- 
ter must be not less than two and one-half inches square 
tool steel, and the face should be from three to four inches, 
according to the size wanted. After the end has been up- 
set, place the bar on the anvil, face of the flatter against 
the anvil, one side resting against the bottom fuller, so 
that it cannot slide off the anvil, and then us.e the fuller — 
not the set hammer — to shape the flanged face. See 
Fig. 2S. 

I cannot too often warn against the use of the set ham- 
mer. It is a tool too much used where it should not be. 

Some smiths will take the 
flatter at this stage in the 
making, and place the bar 
in the square hole in the 
swage block, and strike on 
the Jace end with the 
sledge. In so doing, you 
will forge a sharp cut into 
the steel, and make the foot a square angle. This is neith- 
er a strong nor a good-looking flatter. 
When the flatter is finished, it should be 
like Fig. 24. The flatter should not be 
hardened, nor the head of any tools like 
chisels, set hammers, flatters, and any tool 
on which we strike. 

SWAGE BLOCK. 

The swage block is a very handy tool, 
and every smith should have one, for it 
answers for swages and head tools both. 
See Fig. 25. 




Figure 23. 




Figure 24. 



Lessons IX-XII 

LESSON X. 

SET HA'MMER. 



37 



The set hammer is one of the easiest tools made. Take 
a piece of tool steel i^ square inches. Punch the hole 





Figure 25. 



SET HAMMER 

Figure 26. 



as when making chisels. Place the set hammer over the 
bottom fuller cornerwise, the top fuller on the upper edge. 
Have the helper strike a blow or two, and the grooves 
thus made will make the set hammer look nobby also. See 
Fig. 26. When the hammer is ready, harden and draw 
temper to a coffee color. 

SWAGES. 

For bottom swages, use tool steel 2 inches square. 
Place the steel over the fuller, and fuller down to the size 
of the square hole in anvil. Draw out that shank to go in 
the hole first. Next cut off steel, heat, and place in the 
hole in anvil, and draw out. The rest suggests itself. 
When ready to groove, place a piece of iron the size want- 
ed over the part to be grooved, and strike with sledge. 
You may place the flatter on top of the rod to hold it 
steady. Top fullers are made much the same way,— the 



38 Standard Blacksmithing 

hole to be made when the rest is finished, contrary to the 
rules for hammers, etc. 





Top. 
Figure 27. Figure 28. 

FULLERS. 

Fullers are made the same way as swages. See Figs. 29 
and 30. 




BOTTOM 



Figure 29. 




Top. 
Figure 30. 



HARDIE. 




HARDIE 
Figure 31. 



Hardies are made on the 
same principle as bottom full- 
ers. They must be made of 
,![^ood steel, and hardened. 
Draw the temper until it turns 



from coffee to a blue hue color. See Fig. 31. 



Lessons IX-XII 



39 




SQUARE 

Figure 32. 




BLACKSMITH PUNCHES. 

Punches should be made 
of the best tool steel. Use 
1%. or i3>2 incn square ma- 
terial. Punch the eye first ; 
then make a s^roove under 
the eye with the fuller ; next 
draw point. These tools 
are easily made. Do not 
harden. See Fig. 32. 

HEADING TOOLS. 

For bolt making, a heading tool must be used. To 
make one, take 
tool steel 2 inch- 
es square, fuller 
off the head, and 
draw out shank, ^' ^^^^'" ^^• 

as shown in A, Fig. 33. Another yet handier head tool for 

a repair shop is 

shown m B, Fig. 33. 

This tool can easily 

be made from 1x2 

B. Fgure 33. i^ch tool stcel. Drill 

the holes for the different sizes, and countersink one side 

for countersunk heads as for plow bolts, etc. Do not 

harden. 

LESSON XI. 

SQUARE ANGLES. 

In making square angles, all new beginners and all 
third-rate men bend in the vise, but as a rule the wise 
smith is not much of a smith. If the piece to be bent 
is common American iron, it makes a very poor job to 
bend in the vise, for this reason: that the sharp corner 





40 Standard Blacksmithing 

of the jaw will make a very sharp angle, and is liable to 
break under a heavy strain. It is important that no 
work be bent in the vise, especially if poor iron. Bend 

the material over the 
anvil. The helper 
holds the sledge as 
shown in Fig. 34. 
When the piece is 
bent, work it down to 
square on the inside 
Figure 34. "^y striking on the 

outside, while the iron 
is so held that it does not rest with the corner agauist 
the anvil. The angle cannot be worked to a square corner 
on the outside unless the material was heavier over the 
bend. This is a piece of work to do that must be done 
right, or it will neither look good 
nor will it be strong. If an at- 
tempt is made to work the angle 
until it is square on both sides, 
there will be a deep crack in the 
square on the inner side, and this 
will render the work useless. See 

Fig. 35A. 

If a square angle on both sides 
is desired, there are two ways of 
working: First, to upset the iron 
on the bend (See A, Fig. 36) ; but 
as this cannot be done in all cases, 
another and a very easy method to 
pursue is to bend the angle, and 
work it square on the inside ; then 
make a wedge, and cut in for it in 




Figure 35A. 




Figure 36. 



Lessons IX -XII 



41 



the stock next to the corner ; weld this wedge in and work 
it out to a square. The wedge should be tapered at both 
ends. See Fig. 36B. 

LESSON XII. 

TONGS. 

Even blacksmiths' tongs are now manufactured and 
sold to the smith, but all older smiths prefer to make their 
own tongs. Every apprentice should experiment some 
in making tongs, for it is a good exercise in learning the 
trade. 

To make a small pair of tongs, take J4~ii^ch square 
Swede iron. Place the bar diagonally over the anvil, with 
the end stickmg outside the outer edge of the anvil about 
two inches, and strike with the hammer in such a manner 
that the center of the hammer comes down over the edge 
of the anvil. This will make the edge of the anvil cut 





s 

Fig-ure 36A. 



into tne bar, and forge the first shoulder, as shown in I, 
Fig. 36A. The next move, place the bar on the inner 
side of the anvil up against the shoulder made in the 



42 Standard Blacksmithing 

first move, but the inside, that was down in the first 
step, must now be on the left side of the iron. Then 
strike in the same manner, and the edge of the anvil will 
make another shoulder. See 2, Fig. 36A. Next put the 
iron back over the outer side of the anvil, — the side that 
was down in the second step must now be up, — and then 
strike as before. See 3, Fig. 36A. This makes three 
steps, and they can easily be made in one heat, when one 
gets used to it. 

If a pair of tongs with big jaws is wanted, bend the 
iron first as shown in No. 4, Fig. 36A, and then proceed 
as before. Both jaws should be made alike; for when 
they are put together, one is turned down and the other 
up, so you must therefore make them alike. They 
should also be made as described for right-hand tongs. 
By a right-hand tongs is generally meant a tongs to 
be held in the left hand, and when held in the left hand 
the lower shank is on the side next to the body ; left- 
handed tongs the reverse. The jaws in a pair of tongs 
should be grooved, for they will hold better if they are. 
The groove can be made by placing a piece of round 
iron in the jaw while the jaw is hot ; and strike so that the 
round iron will imbed itself in the jaw. Thus a groove 
of the size in proportion to the tongs can be made. This 
groove will give a better grip to the tongs, and it will hold 
round iron solid, which is difiicult with a pair of tongs 
with smooth jaws. When one hole for the rivet has 
been punched, place that jaw on top of the other, and 
mark the hole. When the holes are both punched, cool 
the tongs ofif, and put in a hot rivet. You will now find 
that the tongs are rigid and cannot be opened ; and to 
explain the next step, nothing can be said that will explain 
it better than to tell a good little story of an apprentice in 



Lessons IX-XII 



43 



the good old times when the guilds held the sway: The 
apprentice had the tongs made and riveted, and found 
to his horror that they could not be moved. He then 
stuck them under the bellows, for he didn't want his 
master to know that he was puzzled. At the supper 
table, the apprentice told the story he had heard about 
an apprentice who, when he had made a pair of tongs, 
threw them away because he could not move the jaws 
after they were riveted together. *'Oh, such a fool," said 
the smith; "why didn't he heat them." The next time 
our apprentice was alone he pulled out his tongs, made 
them red hot, and they could be worked easily. 

S-Wrench. 
S-wrenches are the most convenient wrenches in a shop. 
To make one, take a bar of tool steel >4 or ^ inch. Place 
the bar edgewise over the bottom fuller, and the top ful- 
ler on the top side. Have the helper strike while the 
shoulders are made. Next draw out the stock toward 
the center of the material. See A, Fig. 37. The next step 
is to round the end up over the edge of the anvil. Then 
punch a little hole in the bottom of the jaw, and cut out 

with the chisel, as shown in B, 
J AV ^ Fig. 27. If there is enough 

stock, you may cut out as in- 
dicated by the dotted line. 
Then finish as shown by C. 
This makes one end of the S- 
Figure 37. wrench. The other end is 

bent in the opposite direction, and the jaw should be of 
a different size. These are the best wrenches. Do not 
harden. 

SPLIT FORGING. 

There is a great variety of work where split forging is 




44 



Standard Black smithing 



necessary. For instance, you wish to make a hole \% 
inches round in a fiat bar, when the bar is only 1}4 inches 
wide. In such a case, split the bar as shown in A, Fig. 38 ; 





Figure 38. Figure 39. 

then drive in a punch that will swell it out as shown In B, 
38. It is safest to first punch a little hole at each 



Fi 



end of the split, for otherwise the split may keep on split- 



Figure 40. 

ting further than is wanted. This Is especially the case 
when the material is American iron. Fig. 39 shows an- 
other kind of split work. If a cross-shaped piece is want- 





Figure 41. 
ed, split as shown m A, and work out to a cross, as shown 



Lessons IX-XII 



45 



in B. Fig. 40 is still another kind. In this, cut out the 
shaded parts as shown in A, and work out to the shape 
shown in B. These examples are enough, because it will 
o-ive the idea how to work it out in almost any shape de- 
sired. 

THE DRILL PRESS AND HOW TO USE IT. 

Fig. 41 shows the method and 
'the drill as used by primitive 
man. This is the prototype of 
our modern drill and the^endless 
belt. Fig. 42 shows how the 
drill has been perfected by Buf- 
falo Forge Co., Buffalo, N. Y. 
This drill is both for hand and 
power; as it is ball-bearing it 
runs easily, and has many ad- 
vantages over the old-style 
drills. 

Drilling iron is comparative- 
ly ly easy, if the drill is right. It 
is important, in order to get a 
round hole, to have a drill which 
has the point in the center, and 
^ the shares should be of the same 
length and angle. We often 
make our own drills, but for more accurate and easy work 
I would suggest the use of drills and bits as well as ream- 
ers, as shown in Fig. 44, manufactured by Cleveland Twist 
Drill Co., Cleveland, Ohio. A shows a drill for iron and 
steel, B is for wood, and C is a reamer to reamer out holes 
which have been made too small. D is for iron or wood. 
E is for wood only. 

In drilling cast iron, no oil is needed on the drill ; but 




Figure 42. 



46 



Standard Blacksniithin^ 



in common iron, oil should be used freely to prevent the 
drill from getting hot. In drilling hardened steel, tur- 
pentine or water should be used, for oil will, to a certain 



1^85^1^^ 



B 



C 

Figure 44. 



D 



E 



extent, prevent cutting. The feed should be steady, for if 
the chip goes out, it is difficult to start it again in a hard- 
ened piece. The feed should not be too strong when a 



Lessons IX-XII 47 

light drill is used, and when the drill is about to penetrate 
with the point through the iron, it generally cuts in too 
deep, and the drill breaks ; therefore it is safest, with any 
size drill, to slacken the speed when about ready to go 
through. 



CHAPTER V. 



WAGON AND CARRIAGE TIRES. 

"If you have too many irons in the fire, some of them will burn.'* 

In putting on new tires, proceed as follows : First, 
straighten the iron edgewise, then lay it on the floor and 
roll the wheel over it for measure, and cut the tire from 
one to two inches longer than the wheel will measure, for 
the tire will shorten in bending, because, first, the iron is 
upset on the inner side, and, second, it takes three thick- 
nesses of the iron to make up for the stock taken away by 
the fact that the whole thickness of the material is out- 
side of the measure taken ; and, in order to have enough, 
cut the tire off long enough. Next measure the wheel 
with the tire wheel, or what is generally termed the 
"gauge wheel," and then measure the tire after it 

is bent in the Buffalo 
tire bender. Now 
if the tire is for a 
wagon and is one-half 
inch thick, cut the 
tire the same length as 
the wheel, if the wheel 
is much dished. If the 
wheel is straight, cut 
the tire one-fourth of 
an inch shorter than the 
wheel, for if the wheel 
is straight, you may 
have the tire from one- 
Figure 46. ^alf to three-fourths of 




Wagon and Carriage Tires 49 

an inch shorter when it is welded than the wheel ; but if 
the wheel is dished and easily bent, the tire should not be 
over one-fourth of an inch shorter when welded and ready 
to put on. 

In carriage and light wheels, the tire should not have 
njore than one-eighth of an inch draw; and if the wheel 
is much dished, the tire should have no draw at all, but 
be even with and the same size as the wheel. 

WELDING TIRES. 

When the tire has been cut the right length, scarf the 
ends. In scarfing, let the flattened edges spring out as 
wide as possible ; then place one end on top of the other, 
and fit them snug together, and the flared-out corners of 
the top end should be bent down over the bottom end. 
This will hold the tire when welding in the fire. To rivet 
or split the tire for welding is a method used by amateurs 
or third-class men, but is never resorted to by experienced 
smiths. For welding fluid, use coarse sand, and when the 
tire has the right heat, place on the anvil, but, in so doing, 
place the tire over the inner edge of the anvil, about two 
inches from the scarf, and hold the tire in such a manner 
that the scarf will not touch the anvil before you are ready 
to strike; and when you strike, hit with the edge of the 
sledge or hammer directly over the end of the bottom 
tire, for this end is thin, and, if the blow is not over it, 
the moment it touches the anvil, it will cool off, and then 
this end will not stick, and you have only half a weld. 
This is important, and is also observed by all expert tire 
welders^ 

Expansion of tire. 

There are many ways in which to heat a tire in order to 
get it to expand so as to slip over the wheel. For a light 



50 Standard Blacksmithing 

tire, very little heat is needed. A few heats in the fire of 
the forge is enough, for such a tire should, as before men- 
tioned, have only one-eighth of an inch draw; and when 
we know that a tire will expand, when hot, three-six- 
teenths of an inch per lineal foot, it is clear that about two 
feet of heat is sufficient. A tire five feet in diameter will 
expand three and one-half inches. 

TIRE IN SECTIONS. 

In the olden times, tire was made in sections, and nail- 
ed on. We can understand that then the wheel had to 
be made stronger than at present. The endless tire is a 
great improvement over the primitive tire in sections. 

RESETTING TIRE. 

In resetting old tires, first mark the tire and the felloe 
with a center punch or chisel. Then take out the old bolts, 
if there are any. This done, strike with the hammer on 
the felloe, and the tire will come off, but remember to strike 
on the inner side of the wheel, for in case you should 
mark the felloe, the marks will then be where they are not 
much noticed. Still it is better to use a block placed on the 
felloe to prevent marking the wheel. For wide tires, a 
lever press should be used to press the tires off with. 
Next, wedge the spokes if they are loose, and if the wheel 
is felloe bound, saw off the felloes, so as to give the tire 
a chance to draw down on the spokes. Upset the tire in a 
Buffalo Shrinker, and give the draw according to the size 
and strength of the wheel, but not over an eighth of an 
inch for buggy tire, nor more than three-fourths of an 
inch for heavy wagons. 

Thousands of carriage wheels as well as wagon wheels 
are ruined every year by ignorant smiths. It is better that 



Wagon and Carriage Tires 51 

the tire should have too Httle draw than too much ; for a 
dished wheel is a ruined wheel, and there is no remedy but 
to make the wheel over, and put in new spokes. 

Back-dished zvheels. It is no use to try to cure a back- 
dished wheel by setting the tire and giving it a good 
strong dish, for this will be only a temporary help. In 
the first qtiick turn, if the wheel is loaded, the wheel will 
spring back. To remedy a back-dished wheel, you mast 
pull out the spokes, and put in others with the right slant 
or taper in the spokes, to give it the right dish. The 
"faith-cure" smith will tell you to screw it right with a 
screw, and let it stay for some time ; but this is only, as I 
said, a "faith cure," and of no avail. There are many dif- 
ferent ideas about the tire setting, and to refute all these 
whims and fads would take a volume, and, without wish- 
ing to be counted arbitrary, I will say that the method de- 
scribed is the only one, in order to get the best results. 
We often read in our trade journals of smiths who boast 
that they never measure either the wheels or the tire, but 
"set them on a guess," and they are "always correct" when 
put on. I don't believe m guesswork. A mechanic must 
learn to use the rule and the square. What would you say 
of a tailor you went to for a pair of pants, and he told you 
that he would not need to take any measure, as he always 
made his clothes on a guess. Now, a pair of pants are 
about thirty-two inches long, and a difference of about 
one-half inch would not make much difference ; but you 
know that the tailor might make the pants two inches out 
of the way, and therefore you would not want this man 
to make you clothes. A tire is about fifteen feet long, and 
one-fourth inch too much draw would ruin the wheel, and 
there is no man living that can tell the difference of three 
inches in a tire by simply looking at it. So we see how ab- 



52 Standard Blacksmithing 

surd such talk is, and it is the talk of the botch ; still it will 
be presented through our trade journals, because the edi- 
tor was not qualified to know the difference. I will not 
pay any attention to ideas like the above, and if any of the 
readers of this book should want to know why such and 
such a method is not mentioned, let me answer: The ob- 
ject of this book is to let you profit by my experience, and 
you should pay no attention to this or that. When you 
get older in the trade, you will see it v/ithouj: looking 
through my spectacles, and save yourself much time and 
poor work. 

There are dift'erent tools made for the putting on of the 
tire, and for the holding or measuring of the tire. Any of 
these will answer, so I shall take no space for the descrip- 
tion, as these are well known to every smith. There are 
also different methods to cool the tire, as well as heating, 
and you can use the method you can best afford. 

COLD-TIRE SETTING. 

I have very little to say in favor of cold-tire setting in 
repair work. In factories where new work is made, they 
set the tire cold to advantage, because it is time saving. 
The tire then is welded, and the measure larger than the 
Vvdieel. The wheel is then put in the machine, the tire plac- 
ed around it, and the pumps that work the rollers started. 
Of course, it is done quickly, but there is no uniformity 
in the work ; one tire may have a quarter of an inch draw, 
while the other may have one inch draw. The man at the 
lever will simply let it shrink until he hears the spokes 
crack while they are pressed up in the hub. One wheel 
may give a loud crack as soon as the tire touches the rim, 
while the other may give no sound of warning at all. The 
man at the lever must use his own judgment, and guess 



Wagon and Carriage Tires 53 

when to stop. Still, in heavy work, the machine is not a 
bad one, but it is quite different for light work, and es- 
pecially in a repair shop. When a set of carriage wheels 
is brought to the shop to be set, in 95% of the cases 
the spokes are loose, and must be wedged, which cannot 
be done without taking the tire off, and the cold-tire set- 
ting man puts them into his machine, tightens the tire, and 
then we have a botch job which is liable to ruin the wheels. 
A great per cent, of the wheels are felloe bound, and then 
the tire must come oft*; for to set a tire on such a wheel is 
a sure ruin of the wheel. The fact is that there are very 
few cases when a tire can be set to advantage without tak- 
ing it off from the wheel, and many amachine will ruin any 
wheel, no matter in what condition, by forcing the spokes 
loose in the hub and bending them outof shape. My ad- 
vice is, be careful in using the cold-tire setter in repair 
work. 

SETTING AXLES. 

In order to be able to set an axle properly, one must 
have the right principle underlying the method. I hold 
that the fundamental principle is the "plumb spoke." 
There are different opinions in regard to what is meant 
by the "plumb spoke." Some hold that the measure should 
be a gravity measure through the center of the spoke, 
while others hold that the right angle should be measured 
from the inner side of the spoke, as shown in Fig. 47. I 
hold that the gravity measure is the correct measure, for 
we know that the spokes are tapered, and a measure along 
the taper would mean one-fourth inch under a plumb 
spoke. The wheel should stand to the plumb spoke ; but 
if it does when not loaded, we find that a loaded vehicle 
stands over plumb. Therefore, in order to insure a plumb 



54 



Standard Black smithing 



spoke, when the vehicle is loaded, which is essential, the 
angle^ must be set so that the wheels lean out. This is 
called pitch, about the taper of spokes , and then the idea 
of setting the axle to a plumb spoke, as shown in Fig. 47, 
is also correct. The pitch will then be right and in con- 
formity with the dish of the wheel. Axles are set by 
gauges, but then the dish must be observed, and the gauge 
set so as to get a plumb spoke, where the wheels have a dif- 




Figure 47. 

ferent dish. See Fig. 47. Here one wheel has more 
pitch than the other, because of the different dish, but both 
wheels will here have a plumb spoke and track. 



THE GATHER. 

By "gather" is meant a condition of the wheel where the 
front side of the wheel stands in a little — from one- fourth 
to three-eighths of an inch — in a buggy. This is to pre- 
vent the wheel from -pressing against the nut. A little 
gather will force the wheel against the collar of the spin- 
dle which is best. When the wheels are of the same dish, 
the axles can be set right by measuring with a rod as in- 
dicated by the dotted lines, and a rough estimate of the 



Wagons and Carriage Tires 55 

pitch is, where the felloe is one inch thick, to have the 
wheels stand i^ inches wider at the top than at the bot- 
tom of the rim. By this is not meant i^ inches from the 
top of rim to hub. If the wheels are given too much 




] 



Figure 48. 

pitch, the axles will wear, as shown in Fig. 48. In observ- 
ing the rules now given, a vehicle will run easily, for fric- 
tion is reduced to a minimum. 

STUBBING AXLES. 

When the spindle is worn off so there is much play, the 
best remedy is to weld on new spindles. First find a set 
of stubs the size of the axle to be stubbed. Then place the 
stub alongside, even with the old spindle. Of course, the 
length of the spindle should be the same length in the stub 
as in the old axle. Now place the stub so that the ends 
or shoulder, where the thread begins, are even. To meas- 
ure from the end of the threaded part is not safe, for that 
part will vary in different makes. Now push the stub out 
so that it stands three-eighths of an inch longer than the 
old axle. Then mark, and cut it off. This will make the 
axle right when it is welded for axles up to J}i in. square. 
Next upset and scarf as shown in Fig. it. In welding- 
use borax and sand for welding fluid. When the stub is 
welded, set it square with the other end ; for if there is a 
twist in it, it will change the bearing or unfit the bed 
block. Now comes the setting of the pitch and gather, 
of which we have spoken in the preceding article under 
the caption "Setting Axles." 



56 Standard Blacksrnithing 

ROCK DRILLS. 

It is often observed that it is very difficult to find a 
smith who knows how to harden and temper rock drills ; 
but the trouble begins when the smith puts the steel in 
the fire Overheating is the cause of all the mischief in 
tools of highly carbonized steel. 

For rock drills, good tool steel must be used. The most 
common size is five-eighths round or octagon steel. The 
shape should be a cutting edge, with the corners a little 
rounding, and not, as some prefer, a diamond point, for it 
is very difficult to harden a diamond shaped rock drill, for 
the point is liable to be too hard, while the corners are too 
soft. In hardening, heat to a low red heat, and cool off 
in water. A little salt in soft water makes a very good 
hardening fluid for all purposes. Place the drill in the 
water just deep enough to harden, and leave heat left in 
the drill to draw the temper. Then take it out of the 
water, and brighten. Now watch for the temper When 
the edge is yellow, cool off. Another method is to heat 
and place the drill in a trough where there is water only 
one-half an inch deep, and do not draw the temper, but 
place it in the water, and let it cool. If the heat is right, 
this method will give satisfactory results ; of course, some 
will break at the water line. 

HARDENING FLUID. 

In our day, we hear much about hardening compounds 
and welding compounds. An old smith once bought a re- 
ceipt for a hardening compound, and paid a stiff price for 
it , and now I shall throw it in free to every reader of 
Standard Blacksmithing : Aqua, one gallon , Chloride of 
Sodium, four ounces. This receipt he kept as a great se- 
cret, and succeeded remarkably well in all kinds of hard- 



Wagon and Carriage Tires S7 

ening. He generally bought it in the drug store, and paid 
a dollar for one gallon of water and four ounces of salt. 
If this smith had known what a simple fluid he was using, 
he would have lost faith in it and failed. As it was, he 
thought it something wonderful, and succeeded. The fact 
is that soft water and a little salt is the best hardening 
fluid for all edge tools, but we do not like to ''call a spade 
a spade." I know a physician who prescribed the same 
thing for all ills, — a four-ounce bottle of chloride of so- 
dium and aqua, — and he had the reputation of being the 
most wonderful doctor in that part of the country, for 
99% of his patients got well. I also believe that it would 
be a blessing if all physicians would prescribe the same 
thing in 90% of the cases which come under their prac- 
tice, for 99% would get well from it. As it is now, many 
are poisoned ; they simply go to sleep, and forget to wake 
up. I have been so near the grave myself that it was a 
miracle I was not taken off through the prescription of a 
lubber doctor. Still, you will buy something you don't 
know anything about for a hardening fluid; but if you are 
sensible, use salt water. Only a handful is enough for 
two gallons of water. 

WELDING COMPOUND. 

There are many welding compounds on the market. If 
you examine them, you will find that they are mostly borax 
and steel borings, or clay, borax, and steel borings. Dur- 
ing the hard times a few years ago, a tramp blacksmith 
coined not a small sum by selling red clay to his brother 
smiths for welding compound. He dug out twenty-five 
pounds of red clay in a pit where clay suited to welding 
iron and steel was plenty ; then he put it up in small boxes 
of about four ounces each, and sold to the smiths for 50c 



58 Standard Blacksmithing 

per box. Now we have a company organized for the 
purpose of selling red clay and steel borings to the smiths 
for welding fluid. It is not a bad compound either, so 
long as the smith does not know what it is, but as soon 
as he finds out what it is it is "no good." There is lots 
of clay that is just as good a welding compound as is want- 
ed, but, by the way, do not forget the sand pit either. 
Sand, clay, borax, and steel borings, scales of steel or iron, 
are elements of which the best welding fluid can be made, 
and, if you fail to make good welds with these ingredi- 
ents at your disposal, there is something wrong with the 
man behind the anvil. 



CHAPTER VI. 
TWIST DRILLS. 

"Search others for their virtues, thyself for thy faults." 

To make a twist drill for drilling iron, prepare the shank 
first, the part to be fitted in the drill chuck. Next flatten 
the steel, and make it fully as wide as the size you wish 
to have the drill when finished. Now heat the flattened 
part, the whole length, place the shank in the vise, and 
with a pair of tongs take hold of the extreme end of the 
drill, and give one turn to the left; that is, the twist 
should be just once around for the whole length of the 
drill. Of course, it is difficult to make such a drill by 
hand, and get a uniform thickness the whole way. In or- 
der to make a perfect drill, the material should be turned, 
which is essential when deep holes are to be drilled. For 
shallow drilling, a home-made drill will do, but for intri- 
cate and complicated work, use a Cleveland Twist Drill Co. 
drill. When the drill is ready for hardening, heat to a 
low^ red heat the whole length of the twist, cool off in 
water, then polish, and place over a hot bar of iron, and 
draw the temper to a copper color. 

DRILLS FOR CHILLED IRON". 

Drills for chilled iron or tempered steel must be made a 
trifle heavier, w^ith the share a little convexed. They 
should be hardened in soft water at a low heat. Draw no 
temper. Dip the drill in water only deep enough to cover 
the cutting part. In drilling, have an even pressure on 
the drill, and use water, not oil, to keep the drill cool. 



6o Standard Blacksmithing 

MILL PICKS. 

When the pick is dressed, heat to the proper hardening 
heat, cool off in salt water, dip the pick about half an inch 
in the water only, and cool off. Draw no temper. If the 
heat is right, and the pick has not been overheated during 
dressing, the smith will soon be able to do this kind of 
work first rate, provided, however, that the steel is a high 
percentage carbon steel. 

AXES. 

In our time, axes are so cheap, and blacksmiths so ig- 
norant in regard to making and dressing of same, that 
some people never think of going to the smith with a bro- 
ken or worn axe, for they well know that in most cases 
it is money thrown away. In dressing axes, the greater 
danger lies in overheating, because the extreme edge, be- 
ing thin, is liable to become overheated before the heavier 
part of the axe is hot enough to dress ; and it matters not 
how the axe is hardened and tempered, if the steel is once 
overheated, there is nothing to do but either to cut the 
burnt parts off or throw the axe in the scrap pile. When 
hammering the axe out, hammer equally from both sides, 
or the axe will be flat on one side and convexed on the 
other. If one corner is longer than the other, trim it off. 
When ready to harden, heat an even low red heat, cool off 
about two inches in water not too cold, then polish or 
brighten, and watch the temper. It will be noticed that 
the temper very seldom comes back even ; therefore have a 
wet rag or a piece of ice, and touch the place where the 
temper runs out too quickly. By this method an axe can 
get an even temper, which is not possible when the axe 
is hardened in oil, and the oil burnt off, for the smith 



Drills, etc, 6i 

will then know nothing of the uneven return of the tem- 
per. When the color turns to blue, cool off. 

GRANITE TOOLS. 

Granite tools are hardened by the same method given 
for "Mill Picks." 

WELL DRILLS. 

For well drills, — which are the same as rock drills, the 
only difference being the size, — the same method should 
be pursued as in rock drills. The temper might be a little 
softer; and in dressing, care should be taken to have all 
the corners diagonally of the same size. 

HARDENING FILES/ TAPS AND DIES. 

Fill a cast-iron bucket with lead ; set over the fire until 
the lead is red hot, — in other words, has the heat the file 
or tap should have when hardened; then place the file in 
the bucket, tanged end up. Have the bucket covered to 
the middle, and place the file with the tanged end against 
the covering, and the file will float in the lead, and 
hold itself against the cover, for steel is lighter than lead. 
This will also prevent the tong from getting hot, as that 
would break if it was of the same heat as the file. By 
this method of heating, a uniform heat will be obtained, 
which is essential in all kinds of hardening, and especiallv 
in files ; for the files are liable to warp even at a uniform 
heat, and much more so if the heat is uneven When the 
file is of the proper heat, place in the hardening fluid end 
first, and draw out edgewise, to prevent warping, which 
is the result of moving the file in the water against the 
flat side. The file should be taken out of the water while 
there is yet heat in it to sizzle when taken out. Now, 
if it is crooked, place it between two pins fastened in the 



62 Standard B lac ksmit king 

side of the tank, with the concaved side up. Now take 
some water in one hand, and sprinkle over the curve of 
the file, while you hold it with the other hand between the 
pins in a straight position. When cool, it will be straight. 
I have noticed that a file hardener wil become very adept 
after some practice, and it is very seldom a file is found 
to be crooked. Taps and dies are heated the same way, 
and cooled off entirely, then brightened, and held over a 
gas burner, the flame forced onto them with a blow pipe 
until they show a yellow straw color; then cool off in 
water. 

STONE HAMMERS. 

Dressing and hardening stone hammers is some of the 
simplest work to be done by a smith; and still, if one 
inquires of a stone mason how many smiths he knows who 
can do a good job, you will find that he will mention prob- 
ably one smith whom he knows, who is doing this work 
right. A smith who has learned the elementary rules in 
handling tool steel cannot fail to do a good job every time. 
The only precaution to take is to watch for the heat so as 
not to overheat ; for the edges or corners of the hammer, 
if it is a larofe sized one, are liable to burn before the steel 
is hot enough in the center of the hammer to work. Heat 
to a red heat, and make the corners full, with a concaved 
face; this cavity to run along the length of the face. 
When dressed, heat to a high red heat, dip in ice cold wa- 
ter from one to two inches, and keep the hammer moving 
in the water so as to cool it off quick. Draw no temper, 
but cool off. When one end is done, place a wet rag on 
that end while you heat the other for hardening. Both 
ends should be dressed before either end is heated for 
hardening. If one end is sharp, that end must be handled 



Drills, etc, 63 

with a little more care. In this end, draw the temper 
until it shows a straw color. A stone hammer, rock or 
stone tools should not be case hardened; for if a com- 
pound of any kind is used, it will only serve to produce 
a hard shell, which will scale off. Use nothing but water. 
A weak solution of common salt may be used. 

TO RESTORE BURNT STEEL. 

The best thing to do with steel which has been over- 
heated is to throw it in the scraps. However, if a piece 
which cannot be replaced without loss has been burnt, it 
may be improved by the following method : Heat to a 
low red heat, and cool off in water with a light solution 
of salt in it. Repeat this a half dozen times, and, if it can 
be hammered lightly, so much the better. 

CAST IRON BOB SHOES. 

In fitting cast-iron bob shoes to the runners, it is the 
custom to whittle down the runner to fit the shoe, while 
the shoe should be fitted to the runner. For years, I 
imagined that it was impossible to heat and bend the shoe 
without breaking it, but, after some experiments, I finally 
succeeded in bending the shoe so as to fit the runner. 
Here, as in many other instances, the trick lies in the heat. 
Heat the shoe to a low red heat, and in heating go slow- 
ly, and keep turning the shoe in the fire for the corners of 
the shoe may melt before the center is hot. When red, 
put in the vise or in a bending device made for such a 
purpose. Bend or straighten the shoe to fit the runner. 
The heat should be a low red heat. 

MENDING CIRCULAR SAWS. 

A circular saw will often crack because the bottom of 



64 Standard Blacksmithing 

the teeth are filed with a sharp cornered file. The file 
should be round edged, or the saw gummed over a saw 
gummer. Where there is a crack in the saw, find the end 
of the crack, then drill a small hole, and put in a rivet ; this 
will prevent the crack from going any further. It will 
also be well to drill another hole close to the edge of the 
saw, and then put in another rivet. The rivet will hold 
the edges together, and prevent the working apart of the 
edges, which will further break the saw. Of course, the 
holes should be countersunk on both sides, to give room 
for a head on the rivet. 

BAND SAWS. 

When a band saw breaks, first file the joints together, 
so that one end will lap over the other, one or two teeth, 
according to the length or size of them. Then place the 
band saw in a vise, so that it will be held straight. Now 
place silver and copper over the joint, and on top of same 
a little fine borax. Then heat a pair of tongs, with the jaws 
one inch square iron, red hot, and take hold over the joint. 
When melted, let go with these heavy tongs, and the same 
moment take hold with a pair of small tongs, which are 
not hot, over the joint, to close them together in cooling. 
If the ends of the saw are held rigid, one end should be 
loosened the same moment one takes hold with the small 
tongs, for else the saw will shrink in cooling, and pull 
loose in the joints. 

HARDEN SPRINGS. 

There are many methods practiced in hardening springs, 
but no man will succeed with any method until he has ex- 
perimented some, for there are things we must learn 
through failures, and work which at first seems difficult 



Drills^ etc, - 65 

will often become easy after some practice. In temper- 
ing springs, remember that it will not do to use any kind 
of steel, and above all don't be guilty of such a blunder 
as to make springs out of old files, for the cuts in the file 
will be hammered down into the springs and render it 
worthless. One method : Heat to a low red heat in the 
dark, and cool in water. When one has found the right 
heat, this method is all right. Another: Heat to a low 
red heat, and bury the spring in dry sand. Another: 
Heat to a low red heat in daylight, and cool off in oil; 
then hold the spring over the fire until the oil is burnt off; 
then apply oil with a small brush, and burn off again. If 
this makes the springs too hard, burn, off the oil three 
times. When you have made a few springs, you will 
find the right temper. 

CASE HARDENING. 

For iron case hardening, animal carbon should be put 
into the iron. This is done as follows : Place the article 
you wish case hardened in an iron box, together with 
pieces of horns, hoofs, bone, and leather. Then close 
the box tight with clay, and place in a fire, where it should 
be kept in accordance to the depth of case hardening desir- 
ed. Then empty the contents of the box into water. An- 
other method: Grind cyanide of potassium into a fine pow- 
der and sprinkle on the article to be case hardened while 
hot; then plunge into water. This is the most powerful 
compound for case hardening. For plow work, -prussiate 
of potash is used, but it has not the power to penetrate that 
is found in cyanide of potassium. This is a powerful 
poison, and should be handled with care. 

HOW TO TIP BOILER TUBES. 

First scarf the old tube, and when it is scarfc'l down. 



66 Standard Blacksmithing 

turn the flue on the horn of the anvil ; that is, place the 
flue with the horn inside of the flue. Now press up 
against the horn, and turn at the same time ; this is done 
to true the flue. Next scarf the tip, and hammer it out 
enough to slip over the tube about one-fourth inch. Next 
heat the tip, and drive it over the flue. Now have a half- 
inch rod the length of the flue, with a large washer under 
the head on one end, and a tail nut to tighten on the other 
end. When the rod is tight, hammer down the scarf 
with a light hammer, so that there will be no chance for 
cinders to get in between. Now have a big, clean fire 
ready, and use borax freely first, and then sand; this v/ill 
make a splendid welding fluid. For a hammer, take a 
^/g-inch round rod, and bend one end and use as a ham- 
mer, but strike very lightly over the scarf while the flue 
is in the fire, turning round all the while. Now, if you 
have fitted the tip and had the right size on the scarf, 
the flue will be right without any other trouble. Some 
have a piece of a shaft to go inside, and sm.ooth it off 
with a swage outside ; but this is not the best, for you will 
break the weld of one-fourth by this method. All that is 
needed is a shaft the size of the inside of the flue ; taper 
it a little, and, when the weld has been taken, push the flue 
over this shaft, and that will smooth it on the inside. 
When cool, drive a wooden plug into one end, and put 
some water into the flue. If it don't sweat or leak, it is 
welded. 

TO WHITEN IRON'. 

Dissolve ashes of ash bark in soft water, heat the iron, 
and dip it in this solution, and the iron will turn silvery 
white. 



CHAPTER VII. 
TO WRITE ON METALS. 

"The confession of ignorance is the road to wisdom." 

Cover the place you wish to inscribe with melted bees- 
wax. After this is settled, write the inscription in the 
wax, but be sure that the writing will be with a sharp in- 
strument that will lay the metal bare where written. Then 
fill the written words well with the following : Eight parts 
of nitric acid to one part of muriatic acid. Mix well be- 
fore using. Let this acid remain in the letters for about 
ten minutes, then wash off. 

TO PETRIFY. 

Take an equal quantity of pebbles, powdered chalk, gem 
salt, rock alum, and white vinegar. Mix well, and any 
wood will petrify in it. 

HARD CEMENT. 

Iron borinsfs and salt water : mix in a little sal ammonia. 

SOFT CEMENT 

White lead in oil and iron borings. 

TRANSPARENT BLUE. 

For steel or iron of different kinds, and for watch 
hands, Demar varnish, ^ gallon ; ground Prussian blue, 
y^ ounce. Mix this well. This makes a fine blue color. 

TO COPPER THE SURFACE OF IRON. 

The articles to be coppered should be made perfectly 



68 Standard Blacksmithing 

clean. This done, wash in the folloAving solution: Sul- 
phate of copper, one-half pound ; rain water, one and one- 
half pounds. The article, whether steel or iron, will tlien 
look like copper. 

BROWNING FOR GUN BARRELS. 

Tincture of steel or tincture of iron (unniedicated), }i 
oz. : spirits of niter, ^^ oz. ; black brimstone, >4 oz. ; blue 
vitriol, >4 oz. ; corrosive sublimate, ji oz. ; nitric acid, i 
drachm; copperas, }i oz.; i>^ pints of rain water. Mix 
well. Polish the barrel, then rub with quick-lime. Apply 
the browning fluid with a clean white cloth. Apply one 
coat and set in a warm dark room for twelve hours. 
Then rust will form. Cord this down with a gunmaker's 
cord, and rub off with a clean cloth. If a darker shade is 
wanted, repeat the application. 

BRASSING IRON. 

Clean the iron from all organic matter and plunge into 
melted brass. 

TO MAKE LOOKING GLASS. 

To make a finer looking glass than the common mercury 
glass, take 60 grs. nitrate of silver, 90 minims of spirits of 
wine, 3 grs. of ammonia, 90 minims of water. When ni- 
trate of silver is dissolved, filter the liquid, and add 15 grs. 
of sugar in 13^ oz. of water and i^ oz. spirits of wine. 
Now cover one side of a glass with beeswax or varnish 
or gum. to prevent the silver from sticking to one side ; 
then place the glass in the mixture for a day or two. This 
will make a splendid looking-glass, although more costly 
than quicksilver. 

TO DRILL GLASS. 

Glass can be drilled bv an ordinarv drill, hardened, but 



Miscellaneous Recipes 69 

not tempered. The steel must be of a high per cent, car- 
bon. In drilHng, do not give too much pressure, and run 
the drill at a high velocity. Spirits of turpentine, with 
camphor dissolved in it, should be used, instead of oil, 
on the drill. 

BRAZING. 

Heat the article to a heat too hot to hold it in your hand. 
If the article has been polished, heat a little more, and wet 
it with a linen rag dipped in vinegar; then apply a mix- 
ture of German gal mixed with a little spirits of wine 
varnish. 

TO MAKE GRINDSTONE. 

Take 30 parts of river sand, 2 parts of glass, 10 parts of 
shellac. Alelt this in an iron pot, and pour into a mold. 

EMERY. 

When I was a child, I asked an old smith what emery 
wheels were made of, and he said, *T believe they are 
made of steel and iron borings, etc., pressed or melted to- 
gether." Emery was first discovered in the Grecian archi- 
pelago. It is found in amorphous masses and in granules 
in soils, and is a species of rock, or very hard stone. The 
Turkish emery has had a reputation for being the best. 
The crude ore is separated, assorted, and graded, then 
crushed into grains, flours, and the different sizes of 
grains numbered. When it comes to a number about 180, 
it is designated flour emery, and is separated by floating, 
and marked by letters. 

The reason why emery cuts better than ordinary gravel 
or crushed granite is to be found in the fact that granite 
or sand, when crushed, will show a fracture of an obtuse 
angle, while a grain of emery or corundum will always 



70 Standard Blacksmithing 

break square or concave fracture, and wear will not dull or 
smooth it as would stone of any other kind. This is the 
reason emery cuts, while sand or grindstone wears. 
Emery wheels are made in different ways and by different 
methods. Some are cemented and pressed , others ce- 
mented with different cement, and then put through a heat- 
ing process. The emery wheel is the most useful inven- 
tion of modern times. It is found in every shop, and in 
different sizes. It is a labor-saving tool, but like so many 
other useful inventions, coupled with a certain risk to life 
and limb. Great care should be taken in selecting the 
best wheels, as well as an arbor that will run true. I take 
pleasure in recommending both the emery and buffing 
wheels, as well as arbor, manufactured by the Chicago 




Figure 70. 

Wheel & Mfg. Co., 39 Randolph St., Chicago. An illus- 
tration of these is shown in Figs. 70 and y2, 

HANGING BOB BUNKS. 

In making bob sleds, there are no essential rules to lay 
down, with the exception of the hanging of the bunks. 
It will be noticed in a worn bob shoe that it is worn out 
at one end. The front or the hind end is worn the most. 
This is so because the bunk is not hung where it belongs. 
For the front sled, hang the bunk one inch behind the cen- 



Miscellaneous Recipes yi 

ter of the tread, not the center of the runner. With a 
straight edge, find the center of the tread or run of the 
;'unner; then place, as before said, the bunk of the front 
runner one inch behind the center, and the bunk on the 
hind runner two inches behind the center. The front sled 
is generally lifted by the pull in the tongue, and needs less 




Figure 72. 

back setting than the hind runner. In this method, it is 
found that the sleds will run easy ; if, on the other hand, the 
bunk is hung in front of the center, the runner will run 
heavy in the bend and root in the snow. 



72 



Standard Blacksmithing 
RESISTANCE OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES. 



Substances. 



cr. 



Beefh 

Cast-iron, English. . . 
" American . 

Oak 

Steel plates, blue tem- 
pered 

Steel wire 

Yellow Pine . 

Wrought-iron, ordinary 



m 



o' 



aj 



H _ 

Lbs. 
3,355 

4,000 
5,000 
2,856 

93,720 

35.700 

3,332 

17,600 



3 J> aj 

tH 03 -< 

o"^ tr. 

'^3 Q c 



.3 

.22 

2 

.23 

.62 
.5 
.23 
.3 



Substances. 



Wrouglit-iron, Swe. 
Eng. 



" Am. 

Wrought wire. No. 9, 
unannealed 

Wrought wire, No. 9, an- 
nealed 



w ."3.-= 

^ tn tH ^ 



C '-^'+-< 

'S'?^ 



« S 



40 >i 



Lbs 
24,400 
18,850 
22,400 
21,000 

47,532 

36,300 



Oj 5 2 

!- - -^ 

"^ ■"■ a 

3 



2*^ y 



o s 



.34 
.35 
.35 
.26 

.49 

.45 



TENSILE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 

Weight of Powder Required to Tear Asunder One Square Inch. 

METALS. 



Copper, wrought 

" rolled 

" cast. American .... 

" wire 

bolt 

Iron, cast, Low Moor, No. 2 

" Clyde, No. 1 

" Clyde, No. 3 

« Calder, No. 1 

" Stirling, mean 

" mean of American. . . . 

" mean of Engli.^h 

" Greenwood, American 

" gun-metal, mean 

" wrought wire 

" best Swedish bar 

" Russian bar 

" English bar 

" rivets, American 

" bolts 

" hammered 

" mean of Engli.'^h 

" rivets, Engliffh 

" crank shaft 

" turnings 

" plates, boiler 1 

American j 



Lbs. 



34,000 
36,000 
24,250 
61,200 
36,800 
14,076 
16,125 
23,4681 
13,735 
25,764! 
31.829' 
19,4S4! 
45,970 
37,232 
103,000 
72,000 
59,500 
56,000 
63,300 
52,250 
53,913 
53,900 
65,000 
44,750 
55,800 
48,000 
62,000 



Iron plates, mean, English . 

" " lengthwise 

" " _ crosswise 

" inferior, bar 

" wire, American 

16 diara. 

" scrap 

Lead, cast 

" milled 

" wire 

Platinum, wire 

Silver, cast 

Steel cast, maximum 

" " mean 

" Blistered, soft \ 



shear 

chrome, mean. . . . 
puddled, extreme. 
American Tool Co. 
plates lengthwi.-e . 
" crosswibc. . . 
razor. 



I Tin, cast. Block 

I " Banca , 

Zinc , 

' " sheet 



Lbs. 



51,000 

53.800 

48,800 

30,000 

73,000 

80,000 

63,400 

1,800 

3,320 

2,580 

53,000 

40,000 

142,000 

88,057 

133,000 

104,000 

124,000 

170,980 

173,817 

179,980 

96,300 

93,700 

150,000 

5,000 

2,122 

3,500 

16,000 



Miscellaneous Recipes 73 

WEIGHT OF ONE SQUARE FOOT OF PLATE IRON, ETC. 



Thickness 
in parts of 
an inch. 


c 


*— 1 


p.. 




CO 

cj 


1— 1 


Thickness 
in parts of 
an inch. ' 


d 

u 


0, 

p- 




CO 


i 


V16 
3/16 

5/16 


2.5 

5.0 

7.5 

10.0 

12.5 

15.0 


2.9 

5.8 

8.7 

11.6 

14.5 

17.4 


2.7 

5 5 

8.2 

10.9 

13.6 

16.3 


/ .4 
11.1 
14.8 
18.5 
22 2 


7/ 

VI 6 

H 

Vs 

1 


17.5 
20.0 
25.0 
30.0 
35 
40.0 


20.3 
23.2 
28.9 
34.7 
40.4 
46.2 


19 
21 8 
27.1 
32 5 
37.9 
43 3 


25.9 
29.6 
37.0 
44.4 
57.8 
69.2 



WEIGHT ONE FOOT IN LENGTH OF SQUARE AND ROUND 

BAR IRON. 





;::; 


r; 


1, 


j:; 


r^ 


1 


r^ 


« 


5 


• rt 


•^ 


■" iP 


••^ 


'^ 


S 'A 


"^ 




c5 






"j 






c 






'Ti m 


c; • 


C . 


■^ 


^ 


d . 


-5*^ 


c . 


r* 


C 




9 S 




p JO 


C 03 




C m 


CO 


T^'Zi 


M £ 


•^ c 


■^ 


•^ fl 


(— H q 


t:;*"' 


^ G 


t-i ^ 


S C 




^ 


~ r- 


3 


P 


S r- 


d 


r- 


03--' 


fl-, 


_ 


JC ''■^ 


- 


-- 


d-s 


^^ C 


c 




S a. 






^ ?^ 


^ ^ 




E^ ^ 


'^ &. 


• 1—4 


c3 


L^ 


03 


C^ 


%^ 


<A 


c 


a u 


rS 


r^ ; 


c; <D 


;3 


^ 


^ 


^ 


^ 









1^ 






C4 




7-^ 





^1 


.209 


.164 


15^ 


8 820 


6.928 


'M 


46.909 


36.895 


%6 


.326 


.256 


m 


10.229 


8 043 


m 


50.153 


39.390 


^ 


.470 


.369 


IK 


11 . 743 


9.224 


4 


53.440 


41.984 


yi6 


.640 


.503 





13.300 


10.496 


43^ 


56.833 


44.637 


,^ 


.835 


.656 


23^ 


15.083 


11.846 


41;^ 


60.329 


47.385 


%6 


1.057 


.831 


2M 


16.909 


13.283 


4'^ 


63.930 


50.211 


Ys 


1 305 


1.025 


2% 


18.840 


14.797 


41/; 


07.637 


53 . 132 


iyi6 


1.579 


1.241 


2H 


20.875 


16.396 


45-^ 


71.445 


56.113 


M 


1.879 


1.476 


2^/^ 


23.115 


18 146 


4M 


75.359 


59.187 


1%6 


2.205 


1.732 


2M 


25.259 


19.842 


m 


79.378 


62 . 344 


J^ 


2.558 


2.011 


2>8 


27.608 


21.684 


5 


83.510 


65 5S5 


1%6 


2.936 


2.306 


3 


30 070 


23.653 


5K 


92.459 


72.618 


1 


3 340 


2.624 


SVs 


32.618 


25.620 


53-^ 


101.036 


79.370 


13^ 


4.228 


3.321 


3M 


35 279 


27 . 709 


5M 


110.429 


86 . 731 


IJ-i 


5.219 


4 099 


3'>g 


38.045 


29.881 


6 


120.243 


94.610 


1=>^ 


6.315 


4.961 


31/^ 


40.916 


32.170 








H^ 


7.516 


5.913 


3^8 


43.890 


3-1.472 









The weight of bar iron being 1; the weight of cast iron — - .95; the weight 
of steel, 1.03; the weight of copper, 1.16. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



"Every way of a man is right in his own eyes." 

John Deere was the inventor of the modern steel plow. 
When, in 1837, John Deere located in Grand Detour, III., 
he discovered that a plow to scour in the dark, soft, al- 
luvial soil must be a well-polished steel plow. In 1837, 
John Deere made three steel plows from an old saw-mill 
saw. One of these plows was found on a farm near 
Grand Detour in 1901, sixty-three years after it was made. 
A cut of this plow is shown in Fig. 54, taken from the 




The First John Deere Plow, 
Made In 1837 



" Then the steel share and mold and landside.'* 
Figure 54. 

Central Magazine, by Prof. L. R. Whiterell. Mr. Deere 
continued to improve on his plows, and finally he could 



Plows 



75 



not find old saws enough and of the size ; so he got his 
steel manufactured and shipped from England, and later 
from Pennsylvania, U. S. In 1847, John Deere moved to 
Moline, and then started the making of the now famous 
John Deere plows. 




Statues have been erected to commemorate immoral 
men whose only merit has been the destruction of much 
property and many lives, while the benefactors of mankind 
lie in graves forgotten and neglected ; but this has been the 
custom by an unthinking ancestry, and it behooves us to 
becomingly remember the inventors who have made it 



Plozvs yy 

possible to make ten ears of corn to grow where formerly 
only one grew. Agriculture is the foundation of our na- 
tional standing and prosperity, and the men who develop 
this branch of our industries should be remembered, first, 
for the mining industry, as well as all others, no matter 
how great they seem to be, dwarf into insignificance 
when compared with the product of agriculture. 

The John Deere stubble plow has brought a great bless- 
ing, and been of more use than the machine gun. John 
Deere 's corn plow has been a blessing, and only a blessing ; 
still it will not be of such an honor to its inventor as the 
Krupp cannon to its maker, which has been made to de- 
stroy life and property. The one we honor, and the other 
we don't remember ; but mankind insists on being pervert- 
ed and crooked, and it takes sledcre-hammer blows to 
straighten it out. Let us erect a statue in commemoration 
of John Deere. 

SLIP TLOWSHARES. 

There are very few smiths who can boast that they have 
made plows, for here, as in everything else, miachir.ery has 
done away with the trade. The only thing to be done now 
is to repair the plow, and the most difficult part to replace 
is the share. In making a plowshare, prepare the land- 
side point first. It is important, in making the landside 
point, to have it one-half inch wider than it should be 
when finished, for that much m^aterial is needed to weld 
down on, and if the landside is not high enough the share 
will be lower than the mold board, and it should be the 
other way. The landside point should also be fully as 
thick as the offset against the plate, for, if it is thinner there 
will be a shoulder against the end of the landside plate, 
and the dirt will lodge against this shoulder, and interfere 



78 



Standard Blacksmithin^ 



with the scouring and run of the plow. The landside 
point should also have the right concavity or circle ; for 
if it is straight, like a wedge, the share will not fit dowr 



o^^^^^^ 




Plow 200 Years Old. 

on the frog, and if it is too much of a cavity-circle-shaped, 
the share will rest too much or too soon on the end of the 
frog, but not fit up against it the whole way. The land- 
side is the foundation on which to build the plow, and, if 
the landside is of the proper shape and size, it will be com- 
paratively easy to make the share. The landside point 
should also have the right angle in the back-end to fit 
against the shoulder of the plow, and stand in line with 
the whole length of the landside. When the landside 
point is finished, place it In position, and hold it there with 
a pair of tongs held with the tong rings. Now„ the land- 
side point should stand in line with the whole landside, 
both in regard to the bottom as well as the side. 

If the mold board Is thick on the point, then cut a 
notch in landside, as shown in A, Fig. 56. If this is done, 
it will guide in placing the lay when it is welded, and the 



Plozvs 



79 



joint of the lay can be placed even with the joint of the 
mold board. This is very important, and for two reasons : 
First, if the share is lower than the mold board, dirt will 
lodge against the joint, and the plow will not scour, the mold 
board will wear off, and this will in a short time ruin the 
plow. Another important point to remember is to have 




the joints tight, for, if they are not, dirt and straw will 
accumulate and interfere with the plow. Now if you 
cannot use a blank share, take a bar of steel 6x^ inch, and 
cut as shown at A, in Fig. 57. Then draw out, and shape 
as shown in B. Now be sure to have the angle in the 



8o . Standard Black smithing 

share at C, in line with the landside. This is another im- 
portant point. When the share is shaped and sharpened 




then bend so that the share is at right angles with the land- 
side and edge of lay as shown in Fig. 58. This is the 




Figure 56. 



nght shape for a stubble plow, but for a breaker the 



Plows 



8i 



share should be turned up more, so as to leave a gap be- 
tween the share and the square at least an eighth of an 



;:^ 



* Figure 57. 

inch. This should be obser\^ed in all walking breakers as 
the mold board in a breaker has not so much turn as in 
a stubble plow, and for" that reason the share should be 
more curved. 




Figure 58. 



Figure 59. 



In walking lays, the turn in the mold board should be 
obser/ed and the share curved accordingly. Also, the 
hardness of the ground should be taken into considera- 
tion. A plowshare set for spring plowing, -^vhen the 
ground is soft, should have the edge along the heel turned 
up more than a share m.ade for fall plowing, when the 
ground is hard. When the share has been fitted to the 
landside and the square, — not the brace, as many smiths 



S2 Standard Blacksmithing 

do, for the brace at the heel might have been bent out of 
shape and it is not safe to go by that, — then clamp the 
share on the landside as shown in Fig. 59. Then weld 
the point first as indicated by the dotted Hnes. You will 
notice that the share is longer than the landside point: 
therefore bend the share over and under the point, and 
weld. You now have the share ''stuck" and in a good 
condition to prepare for the most important weld, — the 
weld of the joint. Many smiths — yes, most of them — 
weld at the joint first. Wrong as it is, it still comes easier 
to do things wrong, and I will now explain why it is bet- 
ter to weld and stick the point first. First, it is easier to 

get a weld on the point 
than up at the joint, where 
there is so much difference 
in the thickness of the ma- 
terial ; second, when th-" 
point is welded, you can 
place the share on the 
plow, and see if it is a 
good snug fit before you 
weld it ; and third, you 
can now heat the share at 
the joint, and fit the land- 
side and the share tight 
and closely together while 
it is hot, for if this is not 
done the blast in the fire 
will blow cmders in be- 
tween, and you will never 
F^s"^e 60. get a good weld. I think 

this explains the reason wliy there are so few plowshares 
found which have a good fit and a solid weld. 




Plows 83 

In welding, have a good, large, clean fire. Use borax 
and sand freely. Go slowly, for if you put on too much 
blast the steel in the share will burn before the iron in 
the landside is hot enough. When the weld has been 
taken, place the share on the plow, and hammer it on 
snug while hot; then finish up the point. When weld- 
ed, make the holes and punch with a Buffalo punch. See 
Fig. 60. When the holes have been punched and coun- 
tersunk, grind and polish; then it is ready to harden, if 
it is a soft center ; but if it is a crucible or cast steel lay, 
do not harden. 

HOW TO HARDEN PLOWSHARES. 

Our trade journals are full of advice in regard to tongs 
and devices with which to hold plowshares so that they 
shall not spring in the hardening or during the process of 
sharpening. Let me state right here that all these de- 
vices are failures. Even in a factory where all shares are 
of the same shape, have their tongs and devices proved 
useless, for, as soon as the share is let out of the tong, 
it is found that they are crooked just the same. There is 
one thing, and that is the only thing that will prevent 
warping in hardening a share ; namely, the proper heat. 
By the proper heat is meant, first, a heat that is even, not 
heated with a spot too hot and another too cold, but even ; 
second, a heat not too high, for it matters little what vise 
your share is held in, if it is too hot, it must warp, and, if 
the heat is not even, the same result will follow. 

In heating a share for hardening, you will observe that 
it will, in most cases, spring out of shape. A good many 
smiths think that the warping is all in the cooling off or 
hardening process, but this is not so. When the share is 



84 Standard Black smithing 

hot, sprinkle with priissiate of potash. Next set the share 
right, for you will notice that in heating it has sprung up 
along the edge in the center, and in cooling it will also 
spring or warp upward. The share should therefore be 
set down along the edge so much that it is about three- 
sixteenths of an inch too low in the middle. This done, 
and it must be done quickly, draw the share over the hre 
with the edge down, so that it will get back the heat lost 
in shaping, for the thin edge will cool off faster than tlie 
lay. Now plunge into a barrel of salt soft water. Do not 
use liquid hardening compound, for this will case harden 
both sides of the steel, which is not necessary, and makes 
the share brittle. Neither should you set the share for 
hardening to a leveling block, for this block, being cold 
cast iron, will cool off the share along the edge, and for 
that matter, as mentioned before, the share must stand 
below the square in the center, in order to come out all 
right in the hardening ; so a leveling block is of no value 
for this work. You miust have the share in your eye, and 
set it on the anvil, before you can expect to become a profi- 
cient plow maker. 

DIP OF PLOWS. 

The plowshares should have a dip ; that is, be set down 
on the point from one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch. 
If a plow doesn't run with this dip, there is something 
wrong somewhere else. In gang plows, Vv^e often see a 
dip of three-fourths of an inch, and the result is that they 
run heavy and break often in striking stones and rocks. 

TIPPING PLOWS. 

If a walking plow is inclined to tip or lean over to the 



Plows - 85 

right, roll the share up along the edge, especially on the 
heel. If it tips to the left, turn the edge down. 

JUMPING PLOW. 

If a plow runs unsteady, going up one minute, the next 
going too deep, the fault might be that the share is too 
dull, or it may not be bolted so that it is held rigid to the 
plow, or it may be too little dip, or the upright or beam 
may be loose. Look the plow over, and, if you see noth- 
ing else wrong, sharpen and give a little more dip on the 
point, and it will run steady. 

SHARPENING PLOWS. 

In sharpening a plowshare, do not hammer on the bot- 
tom side, for you will then hammer the shape out of the 
share, and the scales on the anvil will roughen the sur- 
face just as bad as the hammer. Have a smooth hammer 
and strike on the face of the plow. When one gets used 
to this, there will be very little hammer marks, and you 
can keep the shape in the share. 

POINTING A SHARE. 

In pointing a plowshare, do not think of all the smart 
instructions you may have seen in trade journals about 
using mower sections for points, for to do that is just so 
much time wasted. For points, use good steel 5/16 or at 
least not thinner than >4 inch steel, and cut as shown in 

Fig. 61. Draw out the 
ends ; then bend at dot- 
ted lines, the short end 
to be on top of the share, 

Figure 61. ^^^^ ^|^g j^j^g. ^^^ ^^ g.^ ^^ 

the landside. This will make a good, solid point that 




86 Standard Blacksmithing 

will wear well, and stand the butting against stones and 
rocks. 

GRINDING AND POLISHING PLOWSHARES. 

In grinding plowshares, the grinding should be done 
on a solid grinding wheel before the share is hardened, for 




jjjtmiwiinn 
Figure 71. 



if it is done after the share is case hardened, the case 
hardening will be ground off, and the share cannot scour. 
The share should be ground and polished before it is 
hardened; then after it is hardened, it should be lightly 



Plozvs 



87 



polished on a buffing wheel, such as is shown in Fig. 70. 
This is a wheel w^ith a flexible face, such as is required in 
plow work. For full information about Eureka grinders 
and rapid cutting emery wheels, write to Chicago Wheel 
& Mfg. Co., 39 Randolph St., Chicago, 111. If the Eureka 
grinders and the emery wheels manufactured by this con- 
cern are used, the danger connected with the running of 
emery wheels is reduced to a minimum, and time is saved 




Figure 72. 

by the quick-cutting qualities of their wheels. Fig. 71 
shows a Eureka grinder. Fig. ^2 shows their emery 
wheels. 



CHAPTER IX. * 
WOOD AXLES. 

"Keep the shop and the shop will keep you." 

To set wood axles is the most difficult piece of work 
that comes to the smith or wagon shop of our time. In 
shops where wagons are built, they have their methods of 
setting the axles, but it is different in the repair shop. To 
make a wood axle with cast skeins on, one simple method 
is to set the wheels up on the floor as you would wish them 
to stand when they are on the axle; that is, to a plumb 





Figure 50. 



spoke. Then take a straight edge which is narrow enough 
at the ends to go in through the box ; see thai it rests on 
the boxes at B, and you will notice that it is a space be- 
tween the straight edge and the box at A. Now, this dis- 
tance or opening is the amount to be taken off from the 
axle at B. See Fig. 50. 
After the axle has been cut off this much, measure the 



U'ood Axles, etc. S9 

inside of the skein at the point, and make a circle of the 
size of the timber, so that the bottom of the circle will 
run to the bottom edge, and be one-sixteenth of an inch 
more turned toward the front side of the axle. This will 
give the gather while the first cut will be for the pitch; 
the rest suggests itself, and I shall only add that after 
the axle has been fitted for the skein, heat the skein until it 
IS too hot to hold with the bare hand, then drive it on, and 
it will be a good tight fit when cold. 

The pitch in an axle will be right if the spokes from 
the floor on the inside stand plumb, and the gather should 
not be over three-eighths of an inch in a wagon. 

SPOKES. 

In putting in wagon spokes, care should be taken to get 
the tenons of the spokes ; that is, to fit in the hub of the 
same size and taper. Spokes are generally driven against 
a rest, so that they all stand to the same dish when driv- 
en. They may stand against the rest, but if the taper has 
been different, the spokes will stand in a different angle 
when the tire is tightened, for the spoke will then be 
drawn down tight, and if they are tapered different, they 
will give differently, and the result is a crooked and wabbling 
wheel. Use glue in the hub, especially in carriage work. 
In repair work, when one spoke, for instance, is put in, it 
should be fitted to the same taper of the old spoke. 

In repairing carriage wheels with patent hub, be sure 
to remove the rivets, for this must be done to get a chance 
at fitting the spoke ; and when the spoke has been driven, 
replace the rivet and set the tire. 

BACK DISHED WHEELS. 

I have already mentioned the method best adapted to 



90 Standard Blacksmithing 

remedy back-dished wheels, but wish to state again that 
the only sure remedy is to put in new spokes with more 
slant on the inner side of the spokes. 

RIMS. 

Steam bent rims or felloes are sometimes giving the 
smith and wagon maker a good deal of trouble in putting 
them on over the spokes, especially if the wheel is low 
and the rims short and heavy as in truck wheels. When 
the spokes have been prepared and the holes in the rim 
bored, begin with one end, and hammer that end on as 
far as it will go and not break the tenons ; then have a 
hook to draw the spokes together with, and, if need be, 
straighten the felloe out. This can be done with a screw 
buckle or wedging it apart; if this is done, there is not 
much danger of breaking the tenons of the spokes. The 
tenons of the spokes should not be cut off lower than the 
rim. If they are cut off lower, as many wagon makers 
do, the bearing will all be on the narrow shoulder around 
the tenons in the spoke, and the result is that this shoulder 
will sink into the felloe, and then you have a loose tire 
or a felloe bound wheel, — probably both. Cut the tenons 
off even with the rim, and they will rest against the tire, 
and help hold up the burden, which otherwise would rest 
on the shoulder of the tenon. 

WAGON POLE. 

Pole hounds are often broken, and, in replacing these, 
care should be taken to get the hounds on square, or the 
pole will stand to one side and the wagon will not track. 
When the hound has been shaped so as to have the right 
angle, clamp it on with a Taylor clamp No. 25 on the long- 
est end, and a Taylor clamp No. 20 or No. 24 at the small 



Wood Axles, etc. 



91 



end. Now take an iron rod ten feet long, and measure 
from the draw bolt on both sides and to a point in the 




center of the pole towards the tip or holdback. The dis- 
tance from this point should be the same on both sides to 




the draw hole. When this measure has been taken, bore 
the holes that go to hold the hounds to the tong, and then 




bolt the hounds to the tong. If this is done with care, the 
tong will run the wagon straight. If your jobber has not 



92 



Standard Blacksmithing 



the Taylor clamps, send to James L. Taylor Mfg. Co., 
Bloomfield, New Jersey. 



DISH. 



There has been some dispute in regard to the propei" 
dish of a wheel. I do not intend to lay down any arbi- 
trary rule for the proper dish a wheel should have, for 
there cannot be one measure for all kinds and sizes of 







V heels. When a carriage wheel has a dish of a quarter 
of an inch on the outside, it must mean about one-half 
inch when we measure from the center of the spoke as 
the spokes are tapered. . When a straight edge is laid over 
the carriage wheel before the tire is on, and it has a quar- 



Wood Axles, etc. 



93 



ter of an inch dish without the raise of the felloe, it must 
mean one-half inch with the felloe on, and that is enough 
for a light wheel. In a wagon wheel this dish should be 
from three-fourths of an inch to one inch. 



POWER. 



Power in the shop is a necessity, and no mechanic can 
afford to be without a Gilson gasoline engine, which is 




Figure 52. 

now regarded as superior to all motive powers in its sensi- 
bilities to all conditions and requirements. It is cheaper 
and easier to operate than electricity or steam, and safer 



94 Standard Blacksmithing 

than either. For economy and convenience, it is abso- 
lutely indispensable. Fig. 52 is another type, and Fig. 53 
still another. These engines are, some air coolers, and 
others water coolers. They are the simplest and cheap- 
est engines made, and easily operated, and I advise pros- 




Flg-iire 5S. 

pective engine buyers to write to Gilson Mfg. Co., Port 
Washington, Wisconsin. If you can save $50 in the first 
cost, and $25 afterwards in running expenses, by buying 
one of these engines, you have certainly profited by fol- 
lowing the advice of my book. 

PAINTING. 

The smith and the wagon maker is also the painter In 
the small repair shops; and it follows that, being no 
tradesman in that line, he must use ready-mixed wagon 
and carriage paint, and should always have on hand a 
supply of Felton, Sibley & Co.'s (Philadelphia) carriage 
paint and varnishes. A little experiment and practice in 
the line of painting will help to increase the business con- 
siderably, and it is a recreation to the smith if he can 
change from smithing to painting. 



Wood Axles, etc. 

THE SHOP. 



95 



"Keep the shop and the shop will keep thee," is an old 
maxim containing a great truth. The shop should be 
large and high, with plenty of windows and a few sky- 
lights, for light and fresh air are indispensable to health 
and good humor, it is also wanted for the sake of the 




work, which cannot be well done in darkness. Keep the 
shop clean, whitewash it once a year, and you will feel 
better and live longer. There is no sense in wearing 



96 



Standard Blacksmithinc^ 



yourself out in a dark prison. Most of the blacksmith 
shops are not fit for a hog's house, much less for a me- 
chanic like the smith. 

Keep the shop clean, also, in regard to rubbish and 
scraps of all kinds ; make the shop attractive and cosy. 
There you spend most of your time; make it worthy of 
you and your occupation. Use no liquor, and keep away 




Figure 76. 

from the saloons. Most smiths are spending too much of 
their time and money in the saloons. 

Be clean in body and mind, for that is possible even for 
a smith. Do this, and you will be respected and the 
craft elevated through you. Be always on time in the 
morning. Have a Madrid clock in the shop, and do not 
allow its hands ever to pass 7 in the morning before you 



IVood Axles, etc, 97 

open the shop. This clock can be bought for the money 
most smiths spend for beer in a day or two. It is manu- 
fatured by the Session Clock Co., Forestville, Conn. The 
time should be taken in doing different kinds of work, 
for there will be no guesswork ; then you know what time 
is spent on the work. This will help you to establish 
prices on almost everything. Keep the time hard, and 
you will have no hard times. 

What has been said about the blacksmithing is also true 
of the wood shop, and I will only add that, for conveni- 
ence sake, the wagon maker should have in his shop a 
Buffalo forge, as shown in Fig. 76. This is a forge 
originally for prospectors, as it can be packed down in the 
box on which it stands, but it is a very handy forge for 
the wood worker in a repair shop, as there is much work, 
such as straightening irons and bolts, a wood worker 
could do and should do. 



CHAPTER X. 



THE HORSE AND HORSESHOEING. 

The smith, as well as the curved charm— the horse- 
shoe — has been recognized by poets and other great 
men and rulers. 

When Solomon built the temple, of which Jehovah 
was the architect, the king started out one day on a 
tour of inspection, and was amazed at the skill of the 
masons. Examining their tools, he asked, "Who 
made these tools?" The answer was, "The smith." 
Going further the king saw the wonderful work done 
by the carpenters and wood carvers and their clever 
tools and asked again, "Who made these tools?" 
The same answer, "The smith." Going further, the 
king noticed the weavers and workers of fine draperies, 
and asked again, "Who made these tools?" The 
same answer, "The smith." Turning to the superin- 
tendent the k'Tig asked, "The smith, — who is he and 
where is he?" The superintendent took the king by 
the arm and led him out behind the temple and into a 
little dirty shanty, and here at the anvil stood the 
smith pounding hot iron from which the sparks flew in 
the face of the king. 

With reverence the king bowed to the smith and 
knighted him, "Father of all mechanics and king of 
all men." ,^^^^ 



isj t8; A k t J: i^ J8 »^« -^ «k J*.'^ <»> N *• 




loo Standard Blacksmithing. 

Longfellow, supposing, as so many do now, that the 
mechanic is all sinews and muscles, wrote: 

The smith a mighty man is he, 

With large and sinewy hands; 
And the muscles of his brawny arms, 

Are strong as iron bands. 

The fact is there is not a trade where the mechanic 
must use his brain together with muscles as in the 
blacksmith's trade. The smith must not only be a 
mechanic, but he must also be an artist. The work 
must be so shaped that it is not only right in construc- 
tion, but beautiful in design. 

The farrier's trade is a trade of horseshoeing alone, 
but in most cases we find the smith occupying both 
these branches of the trade. 

When and where horses were first shod we do not 
know, but we know that horseshoes were first made of 
iron 481 A.D. 

The primitive shoes were made of some soft material, 
like leather. Later soft metals were used. Some 
ostentatious ruler would, on certain occasions, have 
his horse shod with silver, and in some instances even 
gold was used. The horseshoe has ever been regarded 
as a charm. This superstition is shared by all nations, 
and not least by the American people. Horseshoes 
are found in almost every home, and are prized both 
as decorative ornaments and for their talismanic vir- 
tues. It is claimed Washington had his horse shod 
with shoes of gold at his first inauguration. McKinley 
was presented with a horseshoe at his first inaugura- 
tion by an admirer. Whittier wrote: "And over 
many a neighbor's door she saw the horseshoe's 
curved charm." 

In this work the author will waive any attempt to 



H 

X 
n 

2 

n 

? 



c 

(a 
CD 

la 
H 







I02 Standard Blacksmithing. 

describe primitive and ancient shoes and methods, 
and will treat only modern shoes and methods. 

THE HORSE 

The horse was one of the first animals brought under 
subjection for the use of man, and he is recognized 
among all nations as man's best friend among the 
dumb animals. 

The discovery of the power of steam and its appli- 
cation to locomotion, creating the great railroad sys- 
tems of the present, drew from the sages of that time 
prophecies that the horse would in a short time be a 
superfluous animal. But the horse has held his own. 
Later, the invention of the bicycle made the wise 
men of that time predict the same thing; but the 
horse has held his own. At present the press predicts 
the same fate on account of the advent of the automo- 
bile; but the author ventures to assert that the time 
will never come when this noble animal will not be in 
demand. The scope of his usefulness may be 
lessened; but the time will never come when the 
horse can be dispensed with altogether. The horse is, 
and has been, of immeasurable value to man, and it 
is our duty as horseshoers to learn as much as possible 
about the anatomy of the horse, especially about the 
feet, in order to do our duty as horseshoers, toward 
the hor=^e and his owner. For it is a fact that the 
horse suffers untold agony while speeding along on 
hard roads on account of the ignorance of the horse- 
shoer as well as that of his master. 

THE SHOP 

Blacksmiths and horseshoers frequently make a mis- 
take when building a shop, to erect it on a high 



The Horse and Horseshoeing. 103 

foundation. A shop should be level with the ground 
■ — ^that is, the foundation should be below the level of 
the ground. It is very inconvenient to have the floor 
of a shop high above the level of the ground. High- 
spirited horses will not enter a shop where they have 
to walk up a high bridge, and it is also difficult to bring 
in heavy machinery, when such have to be repaired. 

In Fig. I will be found a plan of a shop. This is 
for a horseshoeing shop. The forges are all on one 
side. The other side is for a shoeing floor; a dotted 
line being drawn the whole length of the shop to indi- 
cate gravel floor. The shoeing floor should be of 
plank, while the other side of the line, that is between 
the forges, should be a gravel floor or, if you prefer, 
a cement floor. A gravel floor is the best if you 
know how to make one. To make a gravel floor, fill 
with a layer of coarse sand and clay about six inches 
deep. Sprinkle this floor with water every night in 
warm weather, and in the course of a short time the 
coal dust in the shop will make it hard as cement and 
better, because it will not crack, and if it does it is 
easier to fix than a cement floor. 

SHOEING 

We are told by some learned veterinarians that 
the history of every horse is a record of human 
endeavor to mar his utility. This is a sweeping asser- 
tion, and means that every horseshoer is a bungler and 
does not understand his business. This may be true 
in many instances, but it is too exaggerated. Just 
think of it: a man shoes horses for from ten to thirty 
years and still knows nothing about horseshoeing! It 
is true most horseshoers do not know as much as they 
ought to know, because they think they know it all 






^ — ^ 






t 






A ^» • 



31 Tooi\'B^?^<^^ 






A 






3 Tool BencA 



4 <i 



A 






"H Tool 



3encA> 



•% 



J4^e^^ Senc^ 



W 

A — + 



0) 

I- 






ii 



t 



t 



W. 



4- 



J?co/^^ 



W. 



Figure i 



The Horse and Horseshoeing. 105 

and refuse to be informed; but after all, the average 
horseshoer knows more about horses' feet than our 
ve'tcrinarians think they do. But generally it is the rule 
that only the greatest botch workman is also the greatest 
braggart. 

Horseshoeing is a necessary evil — an unavoidable 
consequence of the dom.estication of the horse. We 
all concur in the aphorism, "no foot no horse." Still a 
horse with feet so bad that he cannot walk without 
shoes will often be shod in such an ingenious way as 
to qualify him for both hard work and trotting, as well 
as to relieve him from suffering. No shoe has yet 
been invented for all-around purposes that will excel 
the iron shoe. We have for special purposes shoes 
made of leather and rubber, of which we shall have 
something to say in a future chapter. We will not 
venture to deny the fact that horseshoeing, performed 
by the most skilful hands, is at best attended by 
mischief to the foot. Each time the horse is shod and 
each time a nail is driven, is so much damage to the 
foot. But there is no immunity from this evil. When 
work is imposed on the horse that is of such a nature 
that it demands for the foot a footwear which nature 
cannot supply during rest, we must resort to artificial 
means, and the result is shoeing with iron shoes. In 
a wild state the horse needs no shoes. The wear and 
tear the feet are subjected to while hunting for food and 
spinning off some of the surplus of his animal energy 
is sufficient to keep his feet trimmed down to a nor- 
mal condition. It is different when the horse is in 
bondage and must be used as a beast of burden, walk- 
ing on hard roads and paved streets. Then his feet 
must be protected by shoes in default of a footwear 
which can be recuperated during rest. 



The Horse and Hoseshoeing. 



107 



ANATOMY 

Every horseshoer should know something about the 
anatomy of the foot of the horse. No board of exam- 
iners should allow an applicant to pass without some 
knowledge in this respect. Of course this knowledge 
alone will not, and should not, qualify a man. It is 
our duty as horseshoers to ask every state legislature 
to give us an apprentice law, that will require every 
young man who expects to become a horseshoer to 
serve an apprenticeship of three years. We have in 
some states a license law; but this is only a tax on 
every horseshoer, as ahy bungler, able to pay this tax, 
will be given a license to practice horseshoeing, ruin 
horses, cut down prices and lower the standard of the 
shoer to the level of the botch. 



THE WALL 

The wall is the crust or horny sheet encasing the 
end of the foot, in the front and on the sides, from 

the coronet to the ground. (See 
A, Fig. 2.) It is through this 
wall the nail is driven, and it is 
upon this wall the shoe rests. In 
front it is thicker, toward the 
quarters and heels it is thinner; 
but it has the same thickness from 
the coronet to the ground edge. 
The white colored wall is the 
poorer, while the iron colored 
wall, when healthy, is the stronger. 
The growth of the wall is about three inches a year in 
a healthy foot and on a young horse, but on an old 
horse and an unhealthy foot the growth is less. The 




Figure 2 




h 



o 



The Horse and Horseshoeing. 



109 



wall is fibrous, the fibers running parallel from the 
coronet to the ground. 

CORONET 

Coronet is the name of the upper margin of the 
hoof, or the place where the hair ceases and the hoof 
begins. 

THE QUARTERS 

By quarters is meant a place at the bottom of the 
wall, about one-third the distance from the heel to 
the toe. 



THE BARS 

The horny walls on each side of the frog are what is 
called the bars, or braces. These bars commence at 
the heels of the walls and extend toward the point of 
the frog. These bars serve as a brace to hold the foot 
in shape and prevent the wall from contracting. 
(Fig. 3 shows the bars marked 3, and the wall 
marked 4.) 

THE FROG 

The frog is a spongy and elastic cushion, situated 
between the bars at the 
heel of the foot. (See ' 
2, Fig. 3.) This body 
is fibrous and soft when^ v 
healthy. Its ofBce is 
to take up jars, spread J v 
the foot, and give it a 
solid grip and foot- 
hold. This body is an ^^. 
important part of the *^ 

f^^Ot- Figure 3 




no 



Standard Blacksmithing. 



THE SOLE 

The bottom of the foot is called the sole. The sole 
is horny, but soft and more fibrous than the wall. It 

is thickest at the borders, where 
it connects with the wall. In a 
healthy condition it scales off in 
cakes. These cakes should be a 
guide to the farrier in paring the 
feet. We hear so much about 
paring the feet, and every veter- 
inarian has the idea that no horse- 
shoer understands how to pare the 
sole; but nature has set the limit. 
Just follow these scales and you 
are all right. There are feet 
which have no scales to go by, 
and the shoer must use his judg- 
ment. In such cases be careful 
and go slow. It is better to cut 
too little than to cut too much. 
In most cases it is only necessary 
to remove the loose scales and 
level the walls. Nature will govern 
the paring. The same thing can 
be said of the frog. The sole is 
designated by No. 5, Fig. 3. 

Fig. 3 A represents a tool that 

is indispensable to every shop. 

'^"'® ^ It is the best tool of its kind. 

I have one that I have used for over ten years, and it 

is just as good as it ever was. 




CHAPTER XL 



HOT OR COLD FITTING 



In moist climates hot fitting is practiced, because it 
is only by hot fitting that the shoe in such a climate will 
stay on. By hot fitting the shoe will get a perfect fit. 
In a brittle hoof there must also be a good fit, or the 
shoe will not stay on. In many countries hot fitting is 
practiced exclusively, and no bad result seems to 
follow, unless the foot is' too much pared down and the 
shoe, while hot, held up against the foot too long. 
A foot may be just as much damaged by parmg down 
too much. 

The author never practices hot fitting, except where 
there is a brittle hoof, or an animal is constantly 
scraping and kicking, so that it is difficult to make the 
shoe stay on. I fit cold, not because I think it better, 
but because the opinions of horse owners are against 
hot fitting, and I simply submit to the whim of my 
customers. A horseshber who has practiced cold 
fitting all his life thinks hot fitting will ruin a horse 
and vice versa. 

Experience with hot fitting has been had in our cav- 
alry schools, covering a period of many years, and the 
results have been gratifying, as there was no damage 
done when the shoeing was properly performed, and 
the loss of shoes was no per cent less than with cold 
fitting. The advocates of hot fitting claim that it is 
beneficial to the feet, because it softens the foe ' e 




u 
o: 



X 

u. 
o 

z 

o 

H 
U 



Hot or Cold Fitting 113 

hoof oil being pressed out of the part of the foot, 
which would otherwise be cut off, and left as a coating 
on the bottom of the foot to protect the same by clos- 
ing the opened pores and preserving the natural 
moisture in the foot. Hot fitting will also soften the 
hoof, making it easier to drive the nails. It is hard 
to understand how it can be injurious to the foot to 
burn off some of the superfluous horn of the bottom of 
the foot, which must come off by some method or 
other. But if the sole is cut so thin that it will yield 
to the pressure of the thumb, and then a hot shoe is 
held there until it has imbedded itself in the hoof, it is 
self-evident that such a procedure must hurt. The 
burning must be done with care, as must also the 
paring with the knife. For hot fitting, first pare the 
foot and level it, then heat the shoe all over to a red 
heat and touch it lightly against the foot, holding the 
hot shoe only a moment at a time to the foot. By a 
couple of touches like that there is no danger that the 
heat will penetrate to the sensitive laminae. 

COLD FITTING 

The advocates of cold fitting claim that hot fitting 
burns the foot until it is brittle and crisp, frying the 
hoof like a steak, because the hot fitting shoers are 
too lazy to level the foot any other way. This cannot 
be true, because the foot must first be leveled in hot 
fitting the same as in cold fitting, and in addition to 
this, the shoe must be heated all over, which takes con- 
siderable time, so that nothing is gained in time by hot 
fitting. 

It is further claimed by cold fitters that the shoe 
will shrink when cold, making it too small for the 
impression made while hot. Thus we find exaggera- 



114 Standard Back smithing. 

tions on both sides. For one farrier to burn the foot 
until the shop is full of smoke, and the foot is a steak, 
is barbarous. For another to carve, cut and rasp until 
the sole is so thin that it will yield under the thumb 
and the blood ooze out, is criminal. A bungler will 
ruin a horse, cold or hot fitting, while an artist will 
shoe a horse right with either method. I hope some 
tests will be given that will settle this controversy. 
At present one method is just as good as the other, 
when the work is properly performed. In one sense 
there is no such thing as cold fitting. All shoes are 
fitted while hot, but they are not all held to the foot 
while hot, so as to make an impression. Still, there 
are horseshoers who will cool the shoe off; touch it to 
the foot to see how it fits; re-heat it; touch it again to 
the foot; strike a few blows; cool it off again, and so 
on for a number of times. This is the most silly of all 
fittings. My opinion is that hot fitting will come to 
the front, because our most prominent veterinarians 
are already in favor of it. 

THE SHOE AND HOW TO MAKE IT 

The shoes are seldom made by hand now, and when 
so made they are far inferior to ready-made, shoes 
turned out by machinery, because no farrier or black- 
smith can make a shoe by hand of such uniformity as 
the machine-made shoes possess. When the author 
learned the trade, shoes and nails were made by hand; 
but he is not now able to make either shoes or nails of 
such uniformity and finish as characterize the machine 
made shoes and nails. But he often hears about horse- 
shoers telling their customers that the shoes must be 
made by hand in order to insure a good job, and of 
their charging an enormous price for such shoes. This 



Hot or Cold Fitting 



115 



is especially true in shoeing trotters. No smith, no 
matter how clever, can make two shoes by hand 
exactly alike, that would duplicate as machine-made 
shoes do. The same can also be said of nails. 

The shoe should be as large as possible, and the 
work the horse has to perform and his weight must be 
taken into consideration. The horse should not be 
loaded down with iron. There is a good deal of truth 
in the maxim, "An ounce at the toe means a pound at 
the withers." The calks should be low in order to 
keep the feet as close to the ground as possible. 





Figure 4 



Figure 5 



The purpose of the shoe is twofold: First, to pre- 
vent wearing of the foot; and second, to secure a sure 
grip or foothold. The first object will be attained just 
as well by the use of light as heavy shoes, and the 
second will be possible wath short calks as well as 
high, provided they are sharp and suited to the roads 
and the work. The upper plane of the shoe or surface 
should be level. The old style of making the shoes 
was to make th^ web of the shoe incline from the out- 



1 16 Standard Blacksmithing. 

side inward. Although it cannot be proved that this 
shape will produce contraction as is claimed, it is just 
as well to make the shoes level. The shoe should be 
made to fit the foot, and not the foot to fit the shoe. 
It is generally the rule to make the shoe too much 
rounding on the toe. When this is done the shoe will 
have to be set back on the foot, or the front holes will 
b ' outside of the hoof; for it is in very few cases that 

'.: foot is round at the toe, as indicated by Fig. 4. 

The shoe, in most cases, should be a little peaked, 
)r pointed, as shown in Fig. 5. With such a shoe it 
is possible to reach to the end of the foot. In Plate 44 
see illustration of right and wrong fitting. If the shoe 
does not reach out on the toe the hoof must be 
chopped off, as is seen in illustration, "Wrong 
Fitting." 

FITTING SHOES 

In fitting shoes proceed as follows: First put two 
shoes in the fire at the same time. When red hot 
fasten the toe-calk ; but before you do this, bend the calk 
a little to conform with the curve in the shoe. If it is 
a shoe wide on the toe bend the heels together a 
little, as the shoe is apt to spread and be still wider 
when finished. This precaution will prevent spread- 
ing, and leave the shoe the shape it had before being 
welded. When the calk has been fastened, put the 
shoe in the fire with the calk side up, and when red 
hot put a pinch of boraxette on the calk. Do not 
take the shoe out of the fire to dip it inthe compound, 
for if you do you will lose time and sometimes even 
the calk, which is liable to fall off, and then again if 
you move the shoe you must prepare a new place for 
the shoe in the fire, which is not as hot as the place it 
had before being moved. This is a mistaken idea, 




Foot prepared for C^ariier iz'jo. 




Toot ihod tvith CAaHieriip. 




Plantar surface of 
foot tviih Oia/ii'cr ii'p 





J^ght fiUing. 



ffrong fiiti^' 



Plate 44 



Ii8 Standard Blacksmithing. 

and it is to be regretted that the practice of removing 
the shoe from the fire to dip it in the compound pre- 
vails to a great extent among shoers. Have a little 
spoon provided with a handle eighteen inches long, 
and with this spoon put the boraxette on. It always 
pains me to see horseshoers pull the shoe out of the 
fire where it is in a hot place, ready to weld, and 
plunge it into a box of ice cold sand, scooping up as 
much as there is room for between the calk and the 
web of the shoe. The sand will stick and make a rough 
looking job, and much time is lost. If sand is used, 
put it on with the spoon, for it takes only a few grains 
to make the fluid. When welding hot, hammer the 
calk down good into the shoe, striking in such a direc- 
tion that the toe calk will stand at a right angle with 
the shoe on the outside. This will permit the calk to 
lean out on the inner side, which it should do in order 
to let the snowballs out. In old shoes be sure to weld 
on the toe calks first, because it often happens that an 
old shoe will break at one end of the calk. Now then, 
if you have prepared the hind calks first, this work is 
done for nothing. 

In a new shoe it does not make any difference. 
When the toe-calk is finished punch the holes. If it 
is a large shoe, punch only the two front holes in the 
toe-calk heat, and the two hind holes in the heel-calk 
heat. The holes should be punched from the upper 
side first, and then from the creased or bottom side. 

STEEL PLUGGED SHOES 

In many parts of the country steel plugged shoes 
are used especially for winter shoeing. First prepare 
the plug. The best material to use for plugs is an old 
mower section. Put the section in the vise and break 



Hot or Cold Fitting 



119 



:t into small squares from three-eighths of an inch to 
an inch square. When the calk is ready to split, place 

the shoe in the plugging 
machine shown in Fig. 6. 
This is a new invention, pat- 
ented by the inventor, Patrik 
Holmstrom, Hancock, Minn. 
These calks will keep sharp 
if they are hardened at a 
high heat. 





Figure 6 



Figure 7 



CALK DIE 

Fig. 7 represents dies for welding both heel and toe 
calks. 

REMOVABLE STEEL CALK SHOES 

Fig. 8 illustrates a shoe that has been invented and 
patented by Otto A. Meyer Co., of Milwaukee, Wis. 
This shoe is quite a novelty and has many commend- 
able features. 

In the first place we notice that the calks are set in 
the center of the web, which is a commendable feature 
for horses inclined to interfere, or cut themselves, or 
other horses working along side of them. In the fore 
calks this feature will prevent the hind shoe from pull- 
ing off the front shoe, which is very troublesome to 
the driver and sometimes dangerous to the horses bent 



I20 



Standard Black smithing. 



on over-reaching. Another feature is the quick way 
in which the calks can be removed and replaced. 

Not long ago a veterinarian brought his horse to 
my shop, and wanted to know how I could shoe him. 
Said he, "The horse is not lame, but I notice he is sore 
in both fore feet, and they have begun to contract; 
but I am on the road a good deal of the time and the 
horse must be shod." This horse was shod with wide 
heavy plates. I had the plates pulled off, and told 
him to lead the horse into the river and keep him 
there as much of the time as he could until the next 
day, when he was to bring the horse back to be shod. 

The veterinarian, liv- 
ing close to the river, 
did as I told him, and 
brought the horse 
back the next day to 
be shod. "Well," 
said he, "here is that 
soaked horse now, 
but how are you 
going to shoe him?" 
I told him I intended 
to put on shoes with 
short but sharp calks. 
He then wanted to 
know the use of calks 
on his horse's shoes. 
I told him that flat 
bar iron, like the slabs 
Figure 8 put uuder his horse, 

would jar the teeth out of the mouth and produce 
inflammation in the sensitive laminae, and swell the 
tendons in the feet of any horse, and especially a 




Hot or Cold Fitting 



121 



horse like his with 
much knee action. 
To this explana- 
tion the gentleman 
finally gave in. I 
shod his horse as 
I said, and when 
done reminded 
him of the river 
close to his place — 
that he should be 
sure to have the 
horse spend some 
of his spare time 
with his feet in the 
river. A few weeks 





higure 7 B Bryden SiJewe'ght 



Figure 7 A Bryden Goodenough 



later I met this veter- 
inarian and he told me 
the pointers I gave him 
were worth money. 

Plates should not be 
used on any horse, 
because they are hard 
to stand on, being more 
slippery than the bare 
foot, and they jar the 
foot. Plates, when 
used (except as a pro- 
tection to a foot cut 
open or otherwise in 
need of protection), 
should not be over one- 
half inch wide. Of 



122 



Standard Blacksndthing. 



course there are 
objections also 
to calks, raising 
the feet from the 
ground, which 
will cause them 
to dry up and 
contract, but 
this is easily 
overcome by 
the use of hoof 
ointments, or by 
packing the 
feet once in a 
while. 




Figure 7 C Bryden Drop Forged bnoe 




The shoe 
in Fig. 7A is the 
shoe that should 
be used every- 
where a plate is 
wanted, as it has 
a small striking 
surface, will not 
slip and takes 
up jars. Bryden 
C, as shown in 
Fig. 7 C, is also 
a commendable 
shoe. 



Figure 7 D Bryden Shoe for Rubber Pads 



CHAPTER XII. 



HORSE NAILS 

Horse nails are never made by hand now for the 
market, but there are yet quite a number of smiths in 
the business who have 
to make their own nails 
as well as shoes. The 
author's first lesson in 
blacksmithing was the 
making of nails. His 
first penny earned was 
from horse nails. Mak- 
ing nails is a good exer- 
cise while learning the 
first steps in the trade. 
It may happen that a 
man must make his 
nails, at any rate every 
smith should know how 
to make them in case 
an emergency should 
arise. To make a nail, 
first, get a nail rod 
J"x y^g^" soft steel or 
Swedish iron. Point the 
nail, as shown in Fig. 9, 
and cut off as indicated 
by the dotted lines at I 
and 2. The nail marked Figure 9 




124 Standard Black smithing. 

I is a calk nail, so called because It has a sharp 
pointed head, and when the calks are worn down a 
few nails are pulled out and these sharp headed nails 
are driven in their places, and the horse will be all 
right for a few days. This nail is made in the same 
way as No-. 2 in the start. After it has been forged 
down over the edge of the anvil, as shown in cut, then 
bend the nail over as shown in No. I, and cut off over 
the hardy as indicated by the dotted lines. No. 2 i« a 
common nail. 

As smiths never make horse nails except for special 
work I take pleasure in recommending the "New Stan- 
dard" nail.' This is a high grade nail made of the best 
Swedish iron and manufactured by the Standard Horse 
Nail Co., New Brighton, Pa. 

It is very amusing to hear the talk the different horso 
shoers put up in regard to horse nails. One will tell you 
that the ''Copewell" nail is the only nail, another the "Put- 
nam" and still another the "Star" nail. Now it is a fact 
that these, are good nails but not any better than any other 
nail, the shoer has simply got used to their shape and has 
the full confidence in the quality of the nail, and that is of 
course essential in all affairs for if you have not the confi- 
dence in your material you will not have confidence in your 
work and if you have not, you will fail to infuse confi- 
dence in your work to others and the result is that you 
fail ; for if we are possessed with the magnetism of confi- 
dence in any thing we undertake this same magnetism will 
be felt by those we deal with and success is assured. 



Horse Nails 



125 




Figure I I 



This nail is hard enoneh to drive in the hardest hoof, yet 
soft enough to ch'nch easily. 

If poor iron is used in making nails they are liable to 
split and lame the horse, even causing death by lock- 
jaw. Fig. 1 1 shows how 
a nail may split striking 
the coffin-bone. 

In England a nailless 
shoe has been invented 
and patented; but I am 
of the opinion that this 
shoe will not be of any 
practical value. It 
would indeed be a boon 
to horseflesh if such a 
shoe could be invented, 
enabling us to dispense with the nails. When we bear 
in mind that the wall of the hoof consists of thousands 
of hair-like tubes, cemented together, and that each 
tube is one of a great number of minute canals, which 
diffuse throughout the horn a fluid that nourishes and 
preserves the hoof, it can be readily understood that 
each nail driven into the wall closes everyone of these 
little tubes through which it passes, thus par- 
tially cutting off the supply of a substance nec- 
essary to the foot's existence. 
The best thing we can do, therefore, 
is to use as small nails, and as few 
as possible. If the shoe has a level 
and tight bearing there is less strain 
on the nails, but if the leveling of 
the foot is carelessly done, no style 
of nail will prove efficient no matter 
how many are used and of what size. Figure 12 




126 



Standard Blacksmithing. 



PREPARING THE FOOT FOR THE SHOE 

The foot of a horse is quite a complicated piece of 
machinery, and experience has taught that no arbitrary- 
rule can be laid down which will 
work in all cases. In leveling the 
foot be sure that it is level. Do not 
cut down the bars by making a V- 
shaped cut into the heel of the foot, 
between the bars and the frog, as was 
done by our ancestors. The bars 
serve as braces to hold the foot 
together and in proper shape, pre- 
venting contraction The frog should 
not be pared, as it is intended as a 
weight-bearing cushion. In a healthy 
unshod foot it always projects below 
the level of the sole, hence its utility 
in obviating concussion, supporting 
the tendons, and on slippery ground 
it prevents falling. No rule can be 
laid down for the angle of the foot, 
but we shall consider that in a future 
chapter, treating on the shoeing of 
trotters. 

The sole should not be cut into 
more than just enough to remove the 
loose scales. The wall should not 
be. cut down so low that the shoe 

Figure 13 Hoof Rarer will rest Ott the SOle. 




HOW TO NAIL THE SHOE ON 

The shoe having been fitted and the foot prepared 
for the shoe, we will now drive the nails and fasten 
the shoe to the hoof. Before the first nail is driven 



Horse Nails 



IV 



the shoer should be sure that the shoe is placed straight 
on the foot; this done, start first with one of the front 
nails. When the first nail is driven it will be noticed 




Figure 14 




Farrier's Hammer 



Figure 15 



that the shoe has moved back on the foot and also 
over to the opposite side of the foot from where the 
first nail has been started; in order to guard against 
this it is best to set the shoe out a little over the first 



128 



Standard Blacksmithing. 



nail, because the shoe will in every case slide back a 
little in driving the first nail. The nails should be 
driven so that they will follow the wall, that is, the 
nail should nr^t be started too far in under the foot. 
But if tne nail is started in line with 
tne wall it can be driven to within half 
an inch from the coronet without prick- 
ing the horse. When the nail is driven 
there are two ways to dispose of the 
point of it after it has penetrated the 
wall. One is to twist the nail off with 
the claw of the hammer; the other is to 
bend the nail forward snug up against 
the hoof. There has been a difference 
of opinion between horseshoers as to 
which of these methods is che better. 
Both of these methods are all right. 
There are advantages found in one not 
found in the other on both sides, and 
the author cannot see why one method 
is not as good as the other. When the 
nails have all been driven, nip the nail 
points off with the pincers. Be sure 
not to cut them too long, for if you do 
the clinches will not be strong, and they 
will look large and clumsy, and if they 
are cut too short they cannot be bent 
over at all, which should be done in 
order to make a strong clinch. When 
the nails have all been driven, place the 
clinch iron on the clinch and strike with 
the hammer lightly on the head of 
the nail in order to draw the clinch. It is better to 
strike many easy blows than to strike a few hard 



Figure i6 
Clinch Tongs 



Horse Nails 



129 



ones; for if the nail is driven close to the quick 
then that side is soft and the nail is apt to bend that 
way under hard blows, which results in laming the 
horse. Before the clinches are clinched remove the 
chips from the under side of them; these chips are 
forced out by the nail in driving it. Some shoers will 




Figure 17 Foot Rest 

rasp these off, making a deep crease in the hoof from 
the heel to the toe. This is unwise, and will do a lot 
of harm to the hoof. The best way is to have a nar- 
row chisel, and just cut off the chip forced out by the 
nail. Next, place the clinch tool on the head of the 
nail and bend the clinch over with the hammer, or if 
the horse is nervous or has a sore foot, use the clinch 
tongs instead of the hammer. The clinches should be 
short and hammered down snug. It is claimed by 



I30 



Standard Blacksmithing. 






















Figure |8 
Heller Rasp 



some that there is no need of clinching the nails at all. 
Now that might be all right on a horse that is easy on 
the shoes and has a hard, healthy hoof, but for a draft 
horse it will not do. When this 
idea was first presented to me I 
gave it a fair test. In shoeing a 
farm team I shod one of the fore 
feet according to this method. 
The next day the farmer brought 
this team back, carrying one of 
the front shoes in his hand, claim- 
ing that 1 had forgotten to clinch 
one of the fore shoes. This set- 
tled that method with me for- 
ever. The clinches all done, we 
now come to that part of the job 
that is done by every shoer; but 
should be done by none, i.e., the 
rasping off of the hoof. But how 
can the poor horseshoer avoid it? 
The cases are rare where the foot 
is so uniform in shape that a shoe 
can be fitted which will follow the 
outer edge of the wall in its en- 
tirety, the feet being mostly worn 
off, or nicked, and sometimes 
grown out in projecting points, 
and it is impossible to fit a shoe 
to such a foot without rasping. 
Not one foot in a hundred is of 
a uniform shape, still we are told 
not to touch the hoof with the 
rasp. We all agree it would be better not to do so, 
but no man would accept a job of that kind. The best 



ne.w/\h'i<'h:j.u.s>j 

iiiiii 



4MM 



Figure ig 
Heller Rasp 



Horse Nails 



131 



that can be done is to fit the shoe so that as little as 
possible is rasped off. It is a common fault with 
all shoes that the holes are punched too far out on the 
web of the shoe. If the holes were punched further in 
there would be less rasping to do. Of course the pro- 
jecting parts must be rasped off in all cases. There 
are horseshoers who claim that they never rasp the 
foot, but if you watch them you will find that they 
rasp the foot in paring to a uniform shape, and then, 




Hor3C»Jlaer'9 Tool Bas 

Figure 20 

of course, it is easy to fit the shoe, so that no rasping 
need be done after the shoe has been nailed on ; but 
whether they do the rasping before or after the shoe is 
nailed, they will rub some oil on the rasped part and 
tell you, "I never rasp the hoofs. It is the other fellow 
who is doing such botch work, but not I." It is true 
that there are shoers who will rasp the foot from th^ 
coronet to the sole level, but this kind of shoer is an 
exception. The hoof is covered by a fine coating of 
natural varnish, thickest at the upper margin. Under 



132 



Standard Blacksmithing. 



this varnish the new hoof is secreted and protected 
until it has developed. In the rasping this varnish is 
destroyed, and as a result the foot will become dry 
and shrink, causing contraction and a diseased foot. 
Whenever hoof has been rasped it should be painted 
to prevent the air from drying up the hoof, and also 
preventing the hoof oil from drying up. If rasping 
could be done away with entirely it would be best, but 
as it cannot be, let us reduce it to a minimum. 



HOW TO FIT AND RE-CALK OLD SHOES 

It is a fact that re-calking old shoes is a more diffi- 
cult job than to fit new shoes, because^ the old shoe 




Figure 2 1 Wood Worker's Vise 



has either been worn out on the toe, making a beveleu 
web where the toe-calk is to be welded on, or the roo. 
of the old calk is left, and it is hard to weld a new 



Horse Nails 



133 



calk on the top of the old root. If the old calk is over 
a quarter of an inch long pull it off. To pull the old 
toecalk off you will find is quite a job sometimes. The 
old calk can be pulled off in two different ways: 
First, heat the calk to a high red heat, then put the shoe 
in the vise. Illustration, Fig. 21, shows a vise that 
can be used for this work as well as for woodwork, and 
many horseshoers in the country towns are doing 




Figure 22 Iron Worker's Vise 

woodwork also. But if you are doing general black- 
smithing and horseshoeing only, then the vise illus- 
trated in Fig. 22 is the best. These vises are not of 
the common kinds as the illustrations indicate, but I 
cannot here go into detail in describing these tools, 
and would advise every mechanic to study the illus- 
trations closely. The manufacturers will explain these 
novel tools if you will write to them for information. 
Now take hold of the toe-calk in that end where there 



134 



Standard Black smithing. 



is no tit, for that end is always the 
most solidly welded end. A solid jerk 
will start the calk, and once started it 
will come off easily, but if it cannot 
be started with the pincers for want of 
a good grip, then take an old rasp and 
place the end of the rasp at the edge 
of the vise, with the other end lift up, 
catching the calk at the titless end, and 
the calk will come off, provided the 
shoe is held fast in the vise. Next 
proceed to weld on a new calk. If 
the old calk is well worn off, it is best 
to hammer it down to a level with the 
web, and weld a new calk on top of 
it. This is not so easy if the shoer is 



Figure 23 Pincers 



Horse Nails 135 

not a good smith. To do it the shoer must be a good 
smith, knowing how to weld steel. He must have a 
good fire and plenty of blast; not that so much blast 
is needed for this work, but with a good blower the 
minute cinders, always present in an old fire, can be 
blown out of the fire, by stirring in the fire and at the 
same time blowing with force. 

For welding steel of all kinds no compound is better 
than Boraxette. This compound, as well as the blower, 
is for sale by all jobbers in blacksmiths' supplies. 

THE ANVIL 

The anvil of to-day is as it was when some of us 
learned the trade from thirty to fifty years ago. There 
Js not an anvil made practical for all-round black- 
smithing and horseshoeing. We have seen some 
special anvils made for some special kinds of work, 
but the face of such anvil is generally so mutilated 
that it makes the anvil useless for common blacksmith- 
ing. The author has made arrangements with Fisher 
& Norris, Trenton, N. J., manufacturers of the 
"Eagle" anvils, to make an anvil more suitable for all- 
round blacksmithing and horseshoeing. This anvil is 
intended to answer the requirements of the smith 
doing all kinds of work. The extreme edges, which 
are of no use, but which will be knocked off the first 
week, are taken off to make the anvil suitable for plow 
work, such as shaping plow lays and cornplow shovels. 
The inner side of the tail end (butt end) is rounded for 
2^ inches. This is for pointing the toe of horse- 
shoes. As the anvil is now, this pointing has to be 
done over the horn of the anvil, with the heel of the 



136 



Standard Blacksmithing. 



shoe resting over the horn, and the toe held in the 
tongs, with no other rest than the grip of the tongs. 
This will straighten the shoe but not point it much, 
or, it must be done with the inner web of the shoe 
resting over the horn, battering the web of the shoe, 




Figure 25 "Eagle" Anvil 



which should be done by no one. These incon- 
veniences are done away with in my anvil. Ask your 
jobber for an "Eagle" anvil, and the "Holmstrom 
Pattern," and you will get an anvil that will please 
you. These anvils are made with or without the toe 
clip horn. 



CHAPTER XIII. 



INTERFERING 



Interfering is a bad fault in a horse, and is mostly 
found in some horses predisposed thereto from a vari- 
ety of causes, such as malformation in the feet, the feet 
being abnormally developed, resulting in pigeon-toe; 
the planting of the feet outward, or other unnat- 
ural positions and movements due to unshapely feet. 
In other horses the legs are the cause of interfering. 
They are either crooked, or they are not upright and 
straight. In others it is the chest which is at fault. 
The chest is thin, and this brings the legs so close 
together that the least unevenness of the ground will 
cause a little variation of the motion which brings the 
foot against the fetlock, the shin or the knee, and the 
forward-going foot strikes the other, causing pain or 
an open sore. Another cause is due to weakness in 
the legs, or to swollen fetlocks. In others it is due to 
a peculiar swinging motion in the feet. Any horse 
may interfere if not properly cared for. A horse shod 
with heavy shoes will interfere, so will a horse shod 
with too wide shoes. Some horses will interfere after 
they are driven twenty miles. Then the horse begins 
to get tired and cannot take care of his legs properly. 
A horse, poor in flesh, is liable to interfere. In inter- 
fering, the horse brushes the foot going forward against 
the other foot. Some horses strike above the fetlock, 
but in most cases they strike the fetlock. When the 
point of contact is higher than the fetlock it is called 



138 



Standard Blacksmithing. 




Figure 26 



"speedy cut," "knee knocking," *•' paddling," "cross- 
firing," etc. 

Colts seldom interfere before they are shod; after 

that they sometimes interfere, because the shoe is 

either too heavy or too wide 
— probably both — but the 
trouble disappears as soon 
as the colt is accustomed to 
shoes. To ascertain what 
part of the foot or the shoe 
is doing the damage, put a 
boot over the injured part 
and paint it white, then drive 
the horse on a trot, and that 
part of the hoof or shoe 
which is doing the harm will 

show some of the paint. Interfering is common in 

both hind and fore feet. 

If the fault is in the legs or feet it can be remedied 

by shoeing. Fig. 26 represents a shoe for interfering. 

This shoe is called "sideweight shoe." 

In preparing the foot for this shoe, be 

sure to make the foot level, and it is 

well to cut down the hoof as much as 

possible in order to make the foot as 

small as you can. Some shoers in 

shoeing for interfering will pare down 

the outside edge low, and leave the 

inside hip;h. This will throw the fet- 

, Figure 28 

lock out and leave more room for the 
other foot in passing by; but it is not well for the 
horse's legs to be thrown out of line that way. (See 
Fig. 28.) Another will shoe for interfering by putting 
the shoe well in under the foot on the inside, leaving 




Interfering 



139 




Figure 30 



the hoof to stick out over the shoe about a quarter of 
an inch, and not rasping off this projection of the 
hoof. This is worse than leaving the shoe outside of 
the hoof, for the hoof being 
rubber-like, will, when striking, 
adhere to the leg more than 
to the smooth shoe. This 
method I would call faith cure. 
Some shoers will make the 
shoes shorter than usual, and 
set them well in under the heel, 
supposing that the injury is 
done by the heel-calks. This 
is not so, for the damage is 
done either with the quarters 
or the inside of the fore part of 
the foot. Fig. 30 shows a shoe for this kind of inter- 
fering. The striking is not done with the heel-calks 
unless they project too far beyond the hoof. After 

the foot has been leveled rasp 
the hoof straight at the quar- 
ters, as shown in Fig. 31, be- 
tween I and 2, or at the front, 
as indicated by the shoe in Fig. 
30. In preparing the shoe re- 
member that the rule is to have 
the weight on the outside, and 
the weight should not pass the 
center, as shown in Fig. 32; for 
if it does it will neutralize the 
effect you have tried to produce by placing the weight 
on the outside. When the shoe is nailed on, be sure 
to hammer down the clinchings, especially on the 
inside, for it often happens that these are doing the 




Figure 31 



140 



Standard Blacksmithing. 



mischief. If the sideweight is heavy enough it will, 
in a majority of cases, overcome interfering, except in 





Figure 32 



'Figu-e 33 Sideweight 



cases of weakness, or when the horse has been reduced 
in flesh. In such cases rest and ground feed are the 

best remedies. Nothing is bet- 
ter in such cases than flesh; it 
is the best leg spreader. 

For a horse with a swinging 
motion in the feet, a shoe as in- 
dicated in Fig. 34 should be 
used. The turned out heel will 
prevent that swinging motion 
if there are sharp calks, as 
shown in Fig. 34. In inter- 
fering, a self-inflicted blow pro- 
duces sores or horny patches on 
the place of contact. The blow is of different charac- 
ters, ranging from a light touch scarcely noticeable to 
a blow that will lay open the part struck and force 




Figure 34 



Interfering 



14^ 




Figure 35 



the horse to walk on three 
legs for a while or stand 
still. The first thing, there- 
fore, to do is to apply a 
boot to protect the sore 
and give it a chance to 
heal. Next proceed to 
remedy the fault by shoe- 
ing, if the animal is young; 
if old, provide rest and 
ground feed which will 
strengthen the horse so 
that he can carry his feet 
properly. If it is a bad 
case of interfering put on 
a heavy sideweight and a high calk on the inner web, 
but no calk in front or on the outside. This will 
break the gait of the horse, and then the calk can be 

lowered a little at a 
time until the foot 
stands level. 

SPEEDY CUT 

Speedy cut is known 
under different names, 
which have already 
been explained. This 
fault is so much related 
to interfering that the 
remedy in some cases is 
the same. In speedy 
cut the injury is higher 
up on the leg. In all 

Figure 36 Shoe for Knee-knocking and 1 ^11 

Pigeon-toe such cascs the shoer 




142 Standard 'Black smithing. 

must aim to change the gait. Sideweight or tit shoes 
must be used to accomplish this. Fig. 35 illustrates 
a shoe with the sideweight outside of the edge of the 
hoof, the dotted line indicating how far the foot ex- 
tends on the outside. 

In speedy cut, the horse breaks over either on the 
inside or outside of the toe of the foot, and the shoe 
should be so adjusted that the horse is forced to break 
over in the center. If, therefore, the horse breaks 
over on the inside of the toe, a tit shoe should be used 
with a tit from one to two inches long. Fig. 36 illus- 
trates a shoe of this kind. This shoe can be made with 
the tit either on the inside or outside of the toe as the 
case may require. If the horse breaks over with the 
toe in, put the tit on the outside, and vice versa. 



CHAPTER XIV. 



SHOEING WITH TIPS 

Toe tips are mostly a fad. It is only in one case 
these shoes should be used, and that is in shoeing for 
contraction; but even then they are of little value, for 
if the heel, which is thinner, can stand the wear and 
tear, certainly the toe can. If in such a case the toe 
is poor the heel cannot be strong. In using tips the 
toe must have walls high enough to let the tips 
down, for in using these plates there must be a notch 
cut in the wall to receive them, and when the wall is 




Figure 37 Buffer 



nigh enough to be cut into for the tip, it is also strong 
enough to stand more wear than the weak heels. If a 
horse shod with tips is used on hard roads it will not 
be long before the heels are low and the toes high, 
thereby straining the back tendons. For contraction 
something else than tips must be used — an open bar shoe 
for instance, although no shoe at all is still better. If 



144 



Standard Blacksmithing;. 



tips must be used in order to satisfy some enthusiast 
they should be made light, not over ^^g- of an inch 
thick, and then they should be set over often. Tips 
may also be the cause of seedy toe and quarter cracks, 
because of the notches made in the wall to receive 
these improper irons. 

HOW TO SHOE A TROTTER 

Many owners of fast horses are very slavish to 
fashion. The latest! the latest! they demand, and no 
matter how injudicious. Somebody starts a fad and it 
goes the round We hear so much about great 
improvements in horseshoeing, and it is to a certain 
extent true, but there is danger in overdoing it. The 
whims are liable to outnumber the sensible ideas, and 
I hope the day will come when a reaction will set in, 
and when it does come we shall see horses race bare 




Figure 38 Half-round Hardy 

footed, which will be a great improvement over many 
fatuous notions which are attracting so much attention 
at present. If we could learn how to raise horses with 
strong hoofs we would really have learned something. 
But we will never get strong hoofs in our horses by 
artificial living and shoeing. 

One of the most irrational whims is toe weight. 



Shoeing with Tips 



145 



whether it is in the shoe or in a weight on top of the 
toe. Nothing is more absurd than those slabs of bar 
iron, called toe weight shoes; but the whim demands 
this shoe, and the manufacturer, as well as the farrier, 
is ready to accommodate those laboring under the 
delusion. A man with the toe weight whim in his 
head is deaf to all reasoning on the subject. He will 
listen to nothing but toe weight. In his mind it is a 
cure-all, and he imagines that his horse could not get 
out of the stable without these irons. The tip is 
another whim A man staggering under the weight 
of this fad would never think of 
entering a race without these 
faith-cure irons under the feet of 
his horse. I have even heard 
persons infected with the toe tip 
craze claim that toe tips would 
cure contraction, quarter cracks, 
corns and sprains, and, in short, 
that they would cure every ill the 
foot of the horse is subject to. 
The reason for this shortsighted- 
ness is twofold. First, selfishness; 
when a selfish or small-minded man makes a change 
in something it must be made to appear as important 
as possible. Second, most men are of one idea. 
When they get an idea in their heads there is no 
room for another. The bar shoe whim is bad; yet 
there are many points in favor of the bar shoe A bar 
shoe properly made and wisely applied will do much 
good, but on account of this fact it is easy for enthu- 
siasts to exaggerate its usefulness. 

One result of toe weight is laminitis, the result of 
which is a turned-up toe. Fig. 39 represents a foot 




Figure 39 



146 



Standard Blacksmithing. 



that was ruined by toe weight. When the owner of 
these feet was three years old there was not a sign of 
any deformity. The owner of this horse caught the 
toe weight craze and he got it badly too, for he was 
not contented with a toe-weighted shoe, but also put on 
the obnoxious weight, which is sometimes fastened on 
top of the toe. (See Fig. 40.) The result was that 
this promising horse became a cripple in two years, 
with a turned-up toe (see Fig. 39). And what else could 
be expected — a slab of iron under the toe, a weight of 
lead on the top of it, the horse put on hard roads to be 

trained and driven at a 
high speed that would 
crush the sensitive lami- 
nae in any foot! It is 
surprising that the re- 
sult of this fad is laid 
to other causes and not 
to the real one. Still, 
it is useless to object, 
for oh, how little we 
know when these 
"great" horsemen bring 
a horse to us to be shod! We may have ironed 
horses for twenty-five years or more and studied and 
experimented, but we must appear to know nothing, 
for these "great" horsemen have heard something 
from someone, or read something about something, 
and of course they know it all, and the mechanic and 
artist of sixty must humbly submit to the wishes and 
whims of ignorant men and oftentimes boys not out of 
their teens. 

The first thing to be done in shoeing a trotter is to 
level the feet. 




Figure 4 Toe Weight 



Shoeing with Tips 



147 




Figure 41 



HOW TO LEVEL THE f^ME FOOT LEVELER5. 

FEET 

One way, and a 
simple way, to level 
the feet is by meas- 
uring from the coro- 
net down to the -edge 
of the wall, at the 
heels and toe, and 
then marking with 
chalk to where the 
hoof is to be pared. 
No arbitrary rule can be laid down for the angle of the 
foot; it must be found between fifty and sixty degrees. 

It is generally 
the rule that 
after the right 
angle has been 
found the owner 
of the horse will 
keep a record of 
it, and give it 
to the shoer 
when the ani- 
mal is to be 
shod. 

For leveling 
and finding the 
right angle, a 
foot leveler is 
sometimes used. 
(See Fig. 41.) 
It is compara- 
Figure42 tively easy to 




148 



Standard Blacksmithing, 



find the angle with such a leveler, but for finding the 
ievel they are useless. The foot being level, there is the 
guide for the making of the shoe. In Figs. 42, 43 and 
44 racing plates, as manufactured by the Bryden 
Horseshoe Company, are represented. Fig. 44 is a 
light plate, and so are 42 and 43, which it is impossible 
for any smith to imitate by hand forging. From the 
cross-section it will be seen that the web is ribbed in 

such a shape that 
it is better than 
calks, and at the 
same time not so 
objectionable. I 
maintain that 
nothing is more 
ill-advised than 
smooth plates 
First, because they 
are heavy, and 
then because they 
slip more easily 
than shoes made 
in the shape men- 
t i o n e d . These 
shoes are also of 
a uniformity impossible to attain in hand made shoes. 
For lightness they will suit every wish, as they come 
from i| to 3I ounces. 

Fig. 43 is the shoe made in what is called Kent's 
patent. This shoe has a smooth surface at the toe, 
just enough to weld the calk on, when calks are 
?vanted. The manufacturer of these shoes also makes 
aluminum shoes, which in heft come near to nothing, 
weighing only ij ounces. 




Figure 43 



Shoeing with Tips 



149 



Fig. 42 Is a shoe made of ribbed steel, a little 
heavier than the other and ranging from 5I to fl- 
ounces. These ribbed shoes are of such a construc- 
tion that no calks are needed. They give a great 
bearing surface to the foot and a narrow striking sur- 
tace, preventing concussion, which is greater in a shoe 
wjtn a wide striking surface. It also gives a sure 




Figure 44 



grip, which is not the case in shoes with a flat striking 
surface. This shoe should be fitted to the edge of the 
wall, so that when the shoe is nailed, there need be 
no rasping. Use small nails and do not rasp a crease 
in the hoof under the nails for the clinches, but remove 
the chip forced out by the nail with a chisel. : 

Trotters' feet should be kept moist in dry weather 
with hoof ointment or packing in boots. 



CHAPTER XV. 



CORNS 

A corn is an injury to the living horn of the foot 
it is very common in horses' feet, and a great numoer 

of cases of lameness are due to 
this trouble. Corns always appear 
in that part of the foot included 
in the angle between the bar and 
the wall of the foot at the heel. 

In corns the sensitive laminae 
of the foot are bruised, the capil- 
lary blood vessels are ruptured, 
and a small amount of blood 
escapes, permeating the horn in 
the immediate neighborhood, and 
staining it a dark red color. Of 
corns three kinds have been rec- 
ognized: the suppurative, the 
moist and the dry corns. This 
division is based on the severity 
of the result which follows the 
primary cause. 

The fore feet are almost exclu- 
sively subject to this disease, and 
I cannot remember of ever having 
seen a case of corns in the hind 
feet. In talking about corns with 
a veterinarian having a large prac- 
tice, I asked him if he ever saw 
a case of corns in the hind feet. 
figure 45 Pincers Meditating for a whilc, he an- 




Corns 



151 



swered, "I never did, sir." This is not intended to 
disclaim the existence of corns in the hind feet. There 
probably are cases, but they are 
very rare. This fact should 
suggest something to a casual 
observer. Why are not the hind 
feet subject to corns as much as 
the fore feet? There are three 
reasons why they are not. First, 
the hind feet support less of the 
heft of the body; second, they 
receive more moisture and are 
not 'dried to the same extent 
as the fore feet; and third, the 
heel of the fore foot during 
progression is first placed on 
the ground, wherefore it re- 
ceives more concussion than the 
heel of the hind foot, in which 
the toe strikes the ground first. 
These facts should give the clue 
to the causes of corns. 

CAUSES 

I do not believe there ever 
was a writer on this subject who 
did not attribute the cause of 
this disease to bad shoeing, and 
I would not be surprised to 
■some day encounter a work 
which will settle the whole question of diseases in 
horses by the sweeping assertion that from tooth- 
ache to glanders they are all caused by bad shoeing. 
I makre the assertion that there is not a horse* 




Figure 46 Sole Knife 



152 Standard Blacksmithing. 

shoer in the United States so ignorant that ht will 
nail a shoe to a foot with the shoe on the insiile of 
the wall, but no horseshoer is responsible for the 
position of the shoe three months after the shoe has 
been put on. It is true that there are ignorant horse- 
shoers, but they are not as stupid as some of the 
writers claim, and it becomes tiresome to read so many- 
unjust criticisms from would-be wiseacres about the 
ignorance of horseshoeing, for if their statements were 
in substance true, the world would soon begin to sus- 
pect that all these mechanics were fugitives from some 
insane asylums. We ought to grant them the sense 
of ordinary men, and I have found in my practice that 
if I employ a workman who is doing poor work, the 
customer will generally make remarks at once, and I 
hold that the horseshoers are just as sensible, as a 
class, as any other class of workmen. The horseshoers 
of the United States should be exculpated from such 
absurd charges. These charges are mostly made by 
veterinarians who have never learned the ABC of 
horseshoeing. I claim that corns are not caused by 
shoeing, for if they were, every horse that is shod 
would have them. Neither are they caused by shoes 
that are claimed to have been on too long, for if that 
were the case every farm horse would have corns, 
while it is a fact that farm horses are less subject to 
corns than other horses. Further, if shoes, good or 
bad, are the cause, why are the hind feet not equally 
affected? I have often shod farm horses in the fall 
and the owner has brought the same horses to my shop 
in the spring to have the shoes pulled off. I have 
watched, such cases for many years, but failed to find 
any trace of corns, while horses that had never been 
shod would have corns. It often happens to horse- 



Corns 



153 



shoers that horses are brought to be shod where the old 
shoes have been on so long that the shoes will be found 
imbedded somewhere in the sole, but there will be no 
corns, either at the time of shoeing or later. The 
reason that the shoe cannot be the cause of corns is 
this: when a shoe has become imbedded in the foot 
in such a manner that it will hurt, the horse will at 
once go lame. The owner's attention is called to it, 
and the first thing done is to remove the shoej and the 
worst that could have happened is a light bruise, which 
will heal as soon as the cause is removed. 

If there should be a horseshoer so ignorant (and I 




Figure 47 Straight Hardy 

do not believe there is one) as to set the shoes inside of 
the wall, I will venture the assertion that the owner of 
the horse would not allow it. We will, therefore, be 
safe in dismissing that charge, and the damage done 
by the shoes, after they have been on for three 
months, should be credited to the owner of the ani- 
mal so neglected. 

In Sweden corns are called "stone bruise, ' but I 
claim that stones are not the cause of corns either; for 
if a stone gets wedged in between the wall and the 
sensitive laminae so as to cause pain the horse will 
show it at once by limping on the injured foot. The 



154 



Standard Blacksmithing. 



foot will then be examined and the cause of the lame- 
ness discovered. The stone will then be removed, 
which also removes the cause, and effects the cure. 



,® 




F igure 48 
Blacksmith's Tongs 



Figure 49 
Horseshoeing Tongs 



Figure 5a 
Hoof Tester 



Corns are produced by something more obscure than 
stones and shoes, otherwise they would be more easily 
cured. Corns on the human foot are different from 



Corns 155 

corns in horses; but there are cases where the corns in 
the horse assume the character of a callousness, and 
they cannot be cured, because the friction cannot be 
removed. Now then you may ask, what are corns? 
Corns are the result of a bruise, caused by the friction 
of the coffin and navicular bones against the sensitive 
laminae of the foot. The next question is, what 
causes this friction? First, hard driving- on hard 
roads; second, contraction of the hoof, which causes 
the sensitive laminae to press against the sharp edges 
of the coffin and the navicular bones, bruising the sen- 
sitive laminae and resulting in corns. All talk of 
shoeing to cure corns is, therefore, vain. The fore 
foot being more exposed to dryness, and receiving more 
of the heft of the animal, is more susceptible to corns. 
The center of gravity going at the inner side of the 
foot is the reason why corns, in most cases, are found 
on the inner side of the foot. 

SYMPTOMS 

Corns always make the horse lame. There may be 
intense soreness, as in suppurative corns, or slight sore- 
ness, as in dry corns. Old horses, having chronic corns 
are so much used to the pain that they limp very little, 
especially if both feet are affected; still such horses 
are generally restless and move the feet about. In 
suppurative corns the lameness is soon over if the 
abscess is opened. In such cases where the injured 
tissues are much inflamed the heel of the affected side 
is hot and sensitive, the whole foot, of course, is ten- 
der in sympathy. In dry and chronic corns all evi- 
dence of local fever is wanting. When corns are 
suspected the foot should be examined for increased 
sensibility of the inside heel. Grasp the wall and the 



156 



Standard Black smithing. 



bar with the hoof tester, and if the horse has corns he 
will flinch. For further evidence remove the shoe 
and cut with the knife at the seat of 
the corns. As the sole is pared out 
in the angle it will be found col- 
ored and stained red with the 
escaped blood. The discoloration in 
suppurative corns is less marked 
than in dry corns. In suppurative 
corns the horn is colored gray or 
white, stringy and often mealy. The 
difference between suppurative corns 
and others is that the inflammation 
in suppurative corns ends in suppur- 
ation. The pus collecting at the 
place of injury, escapes by working 
a way between the sensitive and 
insensible laminae at the coronet. 
Cases of this kind are serious, for 
they may cause gangrene. If the 
disease is caused by fast driving on 
hard roads there should be rest given, 
and the feet should be placed in 
cold water to soften the hoof and 
to allay fever and inflammation. If 
the cause is contraction, the feet 
should be packed in boots to soften 
the hoofs and give them a chance to ^ 
spread. 

If any of the above causes have 
produced suppurative corns, remove 
the loosened sole, so that the pus will freely escape. 
If the matter has worked a passage out at the coronary 
band and escapes between the band and the hoof, then 



Figure 51 Shoeing Knife 



Corns 



^S7 



cut an opening on the sole so that the pus can work 
down. Bathe the feet for a day or two with cold water 
made astringent with a little sulphate of iron. 

If any complications should arise and gangrene set 
it, it is best to call an old veterinarian. In all cases of 
corns, packing or poultices should be applied to soften 
the horn and spread the foot. Moist corns should be 
cut out, and balls saturated with pine tar put into 
the hole and changed every day until the corn is 
healed. 

In all cases of corns keep the feet soft. There is no 
need in cases of dry corns to cut them out. On the 
other hand it is better to leave as much of the sole as 
is possible, and not touch the sole, for the dead 
sole will retain moisture and help to keep the foot soft, 
which is most important in all cases of corns. 



SHOEING FOR CORNS 

There is no such thing as shoeing to cure corns. 
The best that can be done is to shoe to relieve pain. 

For moist corns a rubber shoe will sometimes be 
found convenient as soon as the foot is in a condition 
to receive a shoe. The wall directly 
over the corns, as well as the sole, 
should be lowered so that there will 
be no pressure oyer the seat of the 
trouble. After the foot is healed a 
half-bar shoe, as shown in Fig. 52, 
should be used. In using a shoe 
like that, the bar of the shoe should 
rest well on the frog, and all bearing 
over the corns taken off. 

For moist corns, shoe as for suppurative corns. 

For dry corns, and when the horse is to be driven 




Figure 52 Half-bar Shoe 



158 Standard Black smithing. 

every day, either put on a heavy shoe or a half-bar 
shoe; the bar to rest on the frog with no pressure 
directly over the corn. The shoe should have short 
but sharp calks, and the feet should be packed so as 
to keep them moist and prevent contraction. 

SAND CRACKS 

Sand cracks are generally of two kinds: toe cracks 
and quarter cracks. The toe crack is a crack running 
from the toe upward, and in most cases up to the 
coronet; while a quarter crack is on the inside quarter 
of the foot. The inside quarter is more liable to this 
injury than the outside, for the reason that this side is 
thinner, and in locomotion receives a greater part of 
the weight of the body than does the outside 
quarter. 

The causes of sand cracks are many. Predisposing 
causes are: hard and brittle hoofs with no elasticity, 
brought on by poor assimilation and want of nutrition 
to the hoof; hot, sandy and hard roads, also wet 
roads, which wash the nc-tural substances out of the 
feet, making them brittle. Shoes with toe clips, large 
nails, together with such diseases as suppurative corns, 
quittor, grease and canker, are also causes of sand 
cracks. Heavy pulling on hard and slippery roads, 
fast running and jumping, sometimes blows on the 
coronet and calk wounds are incidental causes. The 
lameness of sand cracks is generally slight when the 
horse is walking, but the trouble is greatly aggra- 
vated when he is running. 

The toe crack closes when the horse stands on the 
foot, and opens when the foot is raised from the 
ground. In the quarter crack the opposite is the rule. 
Preventive measures consist in keeping the hoof 




4/Bl ^jHfirmlir 




3 ^ 




/ictual eiiokMM 




QUtV/er^ratJt t^it* CfOSS ttc^ 



The cltunpand, nail nm«Ji€5 eLpplUd.' 




Offo tffieet 0/ fuctrter-Craciit 



QUARTER- CRACK AMD REMEDIES. 



Plate 33 



i6o 



Standard Blacksmithing. 




Figure 53 
Plate for Sand Cracks 



soft by freely using hoof ointment or packing the feet 

in boots for the same purpose. The evil of jumping 
and fast driving must also be avoided. 
When the crack is first noticed 
means should be adopted to prevent 
it from growing deeper and larger. 
This can only be done by arresting 
all motion in the edges, and for this 
purpose there are different methods 
practiced. The Wachette clasp, as 
shown in Plate 33, is often used 
with good results. These clasps 
and instruments are sold by makers 
of veterinary instruments. The 

cracks can be closed by nails, as shown in No. 6 of 

the same plate. A plate of brass or iron can be made 

and put on with screws, as shown in Fig. 53. In all 

cases of sand cracksthere should 

be a heavy enough shoe to hold 

the foot from spreading and a 

bar shoe with toe clips on each 

side of the toe for toe cracks, as 

shown in Fig. 53. The clips 

should be at the quarters if it 

is a quarter crack. At the upper 

end of the crack a cut should 

be burned across the crack, as 

shown inFig. 53, to help start' 

the growth of the new hoof. In 

Fig. 54 a bar shoe is shown, 

with bands welded at each side 

of the shoe, and through the ends of these goes a 

bolt with which the foot can be bolted together, so 

that the edges of the cracks will meet. This shoe is also 




Figure 54 
Clasp Shoe for Sand Crack 



Corns i6i 

provided with toe clips, and it is the best shoe devised 
for sand cracks. If the crack is deep and the flesh 
projects out between the edges of the crack, let a vet- 
erinarian burn it off. In shoeing for sand cracks use 
an endless bar shoe, to prevent the foot from spread- 
ing. The shoe should also have sharp calks to prevent 
concussion and jars. 



CaAPTER XVI. 



CONTRACTION 



Oon^raction is not in itself an original disease, it 
ife, iin ^most cases, the result of other diseases and of 
*airti#cial living. Before the colt is used for work and 
"shod, his hoofs are large and open-heeled. The quar- 
^ters are spread out wide, and the foot on the bottom 
is like a saucer. The reason for this is found in the 
fact that tte colt has been running on the green and 
moist turf ^vithout shoes, and the feet have, in walking 
in mud and dampness, gathered so much moisture that 
ttlh(eyihave spread at every step. This is changed when 
ttlhie(Colt is taken out of pasture, put on hard roads, and 
^tafeled in a stable with hard and dry floors, where the 
tfejet become hard and dried up. 

Contraction follows sprains of the tendons, corns, 
ifounder and "navicular disease. When contraction is 
ifound in only one of the feet, it is generally the result 
cof a disease in the foot, because the horse will stand 
(on the healthy foot, which receives more pressure and 
is spread out,' while the diseased foot is dried up and 
contracted. In such cases the feet become uneven 
and do not look like mates. 

No man can comprehend the suffering of a horse 
when his feet are hoof-bound and pressed together as 
if they were in a vise. The pain from a pair of tight 
and hard boots on a man is nothing compared to the 
agony endured by this noble animal and silent 
sufferer. Contraction seldom, if ever, affects the hind 



1 Zandi,SouAti^ee c/tn^^earaJd, 
2 




V» 



Sound but /tat /o»t. 



3«^t^ eentraetMi litt. 



Plate 34 



164 Standard Back smithing. 

feet. This fact should be suggestive. Why do not 
the hind feet become contracted? Because they 
receive more moisture, and consequently do not dry 
up and become as hard as the front feet. From this 
fact we may conclude that there is no such a thing as 
shoeing to cure contraction; still, if the horse must be 
shod, in order to work, the shoeing should be done in 
such a manner as not to increase, but on the contrary 
to alleviate the trouble. ' 

Some horses are predisposed to contraction. A 
high heel, perpendicular in growth, sometimes nar- 
rower at the ground surface than at the coronet, is 
predisposed to contraction. (See Nos. 4 and 7, 
Plate 34.) 

SHOEING 

Pull off the old shoes, pare down the feet as much 

as can safely be done, but leave the frog as large as it 

is. Then have the feet put in a warm poultice for 

twenty-four hours, or in a packing of wet clay. In 

preparing the foot for the shoe pare down the heels so 

that there will be no contact between them and the 

shoe, especially if the hoofs are narrower at the 

bottom than they are at the coronet. 

Next prepare an open bar shoe, as 

shown in Fig. 55. Nail this shoe on 

with the six front nails leaving the 

hind holes empty, and let the shoe or 

bars rest well on the frog. Keep the 

feet soft, either in packings or with 

Open Bar Shoe hoof oiutment or both, and as soon as 

the foot is soft it will spread from the 

effects of the horse standing on the frog. The 

shoes should be reset often, and when they are 




Contraction 165 

nailed, the nail should be started at the inner side of 
the nail hole; this will spread the hoof all that it will 
stand. 

Nothing is more undesirable than an endless bar 
shoe, with holes clear back to the heels, as is used by- 
many. The foot, being nailed to it, cannot spread. It 
is closed in with an iron band, which renders it impos- 
sible for the foot to spread, it deadens all frog 
pressure and, still worse, it compels the foot to crimp, 
as it must grow inside of its limit downward instead 
of growing outward. If any disease is caused by 
shoeing, it is contraction, for all shoes, no matter how 
they are made, will interfere with the expansion of the 
hoof and raise the foot from the ground, giving the 
air a chance to play under the sole and dry the foot. 
If calks are put on, they should be as short as possible. 

If the frog has become hard do not put on a bar shoe 
with frog pressure, for it will not do much good, but 
rather harm. The only remedy for contraction is 
moisture. The disease is brought on by artificial liv- 
ing, in which the foot has been deprived of the mois- 
ture necessary to keep it healthy. Bring the foot back 
to that natural condition in which it was originally and 
contraction is cured. Any packing or hoof ointment 
used so as to soften the foot will accomplish this. 

Many shoes and devices have been made to spread 
the feet, but nothing is more injurious. I will not 
spend anytime trying to explain these different makes 
and kinds of shoes, for they are of no value but on 
the contrary will do great injury to the horse. We 
may imagine the pain to the horse by stretching the 
dried wall out from the sensitive laminae of the foot. 
This will tear asunder but not spread the foot. No, 
the spreading must be natural and slow. Soften the 



i66 



Standard Blacksmithing, 



foot and the foot will spread at every step the horse 
takes, as the foot receives on an average a thousand 
pounds' pressure in every step, and if that is not 
sufficient nothing else will do it. 

Shoes are also' made with the web of the heel 
slanted out; the intention being that the foot shall 
spread from the heft of the horse as just described, 
and it will do so provided the foot is wider at the 
bottom than it is up at the coronet, and if not wider it 
will not spread very well. But this spreading will 
only bruise the sensitive laminae, if the foot is not 
prepared by a good soak before the shoe is put on, and 
kept in that condition while such shoes are used. I 
maintain that the frog is the best wedge to spread the 
foot with, if the foot is only kept in such a condition 
as to permit this natural foot expander to accomplish 
the object for which it was placed there. The best 

shoes for contraction are no 
shoes at all, but a long run in a 
wet pasture instead. Horses 
with feet predisposed to con- 
traction should be subjected to 
a preventive treatment. An 
occasional poultice of boiled 
turnip, linseed meal, or the use 
of some good hoof ointment, 
will prevent the foot from 
crimping. 

When contraction is the result 
of some disease the treatment 
must be directed toward curing 
the disease. If the inside heel has been contracted so 
as to be bent under the foot, a shoe, as shown in Fig. 
56, can be used, and the groove in the shoe should 




Figure 56 
Shoe with Groove to Give in 
Spreading for Contracted Heel 



Contraction 167 

be on the same side of the foot as the heel which is 
contracted. This shoe can be spread a little at a 
time with a pair of tongs. But it should be remem- 
bered, that no spreading should be done before the 
foot has been softened. The groove in that shoe will 
cause the grooved side to expand. The spreading 
should be done with great care and very little at a 
time. 

LAMINITIS 

Laminitis is generally known to the farrier by the 
term "founder." Laminitis is an inflammation of the 
sensitive laminae of the feet, destructive to the tissues 
affected. 

The causes of laminitis are many. The most com- 
mon causes are exhaustion, over-exertion, concus- 
sions, rapid changes in temperature, indigestion of 
various foods, and purgatives. Concussion is the cause 
of laminitis when the horse is driven at a high speed 
when in a condition unfit for such exertion, and it is 
the more easily brought on when a weight is placed 
on top of the foot, called toe weight, causing the foot 
to be thrown out against the ground with force. The 
toe weight in the shoe is also productive of the same 
result, but not to the same extent as is the weight on 
top of the foot. A horse taken from the farm and 
driven hard on macadamized roads or paved streets is 
liable to contract such inflammation. Long drives and 
heavy pulling are often the causes of this disease. 
Horses on sea voyages will be affected by this trouble, 
the exhaustion of the laminae resulting from the con- 
tinual strained position in which the horse is com- 
pelled to stand on account of the rocking motion of 
the ship. Rapid change of temperature is another 



Contraction 169 

cause, such change being induced by drinking cold 
water while in an overheated condition, or from cold 
winds — the horse being left in a cold and windy place 
when wet with sweat. 

It is claimed that barley, wheat and corn are pro- 
ductive of this disease in some horses. When one of 
the feet is incapacitated from any cause the other foot 
is called upon to do double duty and is soon 
exhausted, and congestion, followed by inflammation, 
results. When one foot only becomes laminitic, the 
other member will be affected later, not from sympa- 
thy but because this member is doing the work of two. 

All old authorities agree that metastatic laminitis is 
a reality, while many of our modern writers deny this. 
In cases of chronic laminitis it is found that the toe of 
the foot turns up, the heels are longer than natural. 
The cause of this may be ascribed to the fact that the 
coronary band in front produces horn very slowly, 
while in the heels the production is greater. The 
result is that the hoof is creased like the horn of a 
ram. These creases or ridges are also found in other 
diseases of the foot, but they are then equally distant 
from each other all around the foot, while in laminitis 
they are found to be wider apart at the heels and 
closer together in the front. (See No. 4, Plate 31.) 

Laminitis is a dangerous disease and the farrier is 
not expected to do more than shoe the animal so as 
to minimize the jar and concussions. When the horse 
is excessively lame in one foot, remove the shoe from 
the other member and apply cold water frequently as 
a tonic to prevent laminitis in this foot from too 
much strain. If the horse remain standing, place him 
in the sling so as to relieve the pressure in the feet. 
(See Plate 28.) In severe cases, with profuse suppura- 



170 



Standard Blacksmithing. 



tion of the laminae, it is best to destroy the animal 
and end the suffering. 

In chronic cases where the horse is used for work, 
shoe with light shoes and sharp but short calks. If 
the horse shows lameness and tenderness use rubber 
shoes. The hoofs should be kept soft to prevent con- 
traction which would greatly aggravate the trouble. 

PUMICED SOLE 

Pumiced sole is also known by the term drop sole. 
By this is meant that condition of the foot in which 




Plate 28 



the horny sole, especially at the toe, crumbles away, 
leaving the sensitive tissues more or less exposed. It 
is often the result of laminitis, but may be seen when 
the conditions necessary for inducing it are present. 



Contraction 171 

The horny tissues become weak, cheesy or spongy. 
When the soft tissues are destroyed it often happens 
that the horny sole crumbles away under the pressure 
of the coflfin bone, and the end of the bone comes out 
through the sole. In this disease the sole becomes 
convexed and it is a hard matter for the farrier to fit a 
shoe to the foot, as the wall is not even with the sole, 
but much shorter than in the healthy foot. In such 
cases I would recommend rubber shoes. In preparing 
the foot for the shoe, shorten the toe of the foot as 
much as possible. The foot being long there is danger 
of the coffin bone breaking through; for the longer the 
foot the harder the pressure of the bone against the 
sole. The sole should not be pared off any, for it is 
thin enough as it is. This kind of cripple is generally 
incurable unless the trouble was brought on by a 
puncture or wound, in which event a cure may be 
effected when the wound is healed. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

HOW TO SHOE A FLAT-FOOTED OR WEAK-HEELED 

HORSE 

In shoeing horses it is often the case that some 
horses go lame as soon as the shoes are put on, and 
the horse is all right as soon as the shoes are pulled 
off again. In examining the feet of such horses it will 
be found that there is a weak low heel. Weak-heeled 
horses have, as a rule, wide flat feet, low heels, soft 
and sensitive balls. The reason why a horse with this 
kind of feet goes lame when shod by the average 
shoer is twofold. First, the shoe is allowed to rest too 
hard against the weak heel; second, the nails have 
been tightened too hard, drawing the flat foot down 
against the shoe and causing pain in the tissues con- 
necting the horn with the sensitive laminae of the foot. 

In shoeing, make a shoe with a heavy web, and set 
it so that there is no bearing on the heels. Do not 
draw the clinches hard. The shoes should have sharp 
calks to take up the jar and prevent concussion. An 
open bar shoe with some frog pressure can, in this 
case, be used with advantage. 

Flat foot is not the same as ''drop sole." This is 
another thing entirely, and is termed "pumiced sole," 
under which head it is treated in another chapter. 
Many kinds of shoes are made even for flat foot. 
Some have springs in them to rest on the frog, but 
they are not practical, and sometimes they cost more 
than the horse is worth. It takes more time to make 



How to Shoe a Flat-footed or Weak-heeled Horse 173 

this kind of shoes than both the smith and his cus- 
tomer can spare, and when it is made it is only a cun- 
ning device, good for little or nothing, that will last 
for a month and then it must be made over again, 
which repeated performance the horse owner soon 
tires of. It must be a horse worth a thousand dollars 
to be worth the trouble of making such shoes. What 
we want in this case as well as in all other instances, 
is a practical shoe, easy to make and cheap enough for 
any horse. 

HOW TO SHOE A HORSE WITH BRITTLE HOOFS 

On heavy draft horses with brittle hoofs it is diffi- 
cult to place the shoe so that it will stay on for the 
required time. The reason why the shoes come off is 
the brittle condition of the hoof, which breaks out in 
pieces, or else the nails pull out through the holes, 
which wear large. In such cases a shoe with toe clip 
should be made. The shoe should be fitted snugly to 
the foot. When the foot has been prepared and the 
shoe made, heat the shoe all over to a red heat, then 
press it quickly to the foot. This will give the shoe a 
perfect bearing which is essential in every case, but 
especially with brittle hoofs. Drive the nails deep to 
get good clinch holds. 

STRINGHALT 

Stringhalt, or springhalt, as it is sometimes called, 
consists in a spasmodic jerk in the hind legs, some- 
times only one leg being affected. In some cases the 
jerk is more violent, the foot striking against the 
belly. In others the jerk is only a few inches high 
from the ground, but always the same spasmodic jerk. 
In some cases it will only be noticed when the horse is 



174 Standard Blacksmithing, 

backed out of the stable, in others it is worse when the 
horse is started. Then he will jerk first one foot up 
and then the other and so on for a while, but when 
once started he will walk all right. There are differ- 
ent opinions in regard to this disorder, but the 
majority seem to be in favor of the belief that it is a 
nervous disorder. There is so far no cure known for 
it. If it is a local disorder in the leg, bathing the 
quarters once a day in cold water for two weeks may 
alleviate the jerk. If not, try warm water. Rub the 
quarters dry after bathing. 

STIFLE 

The displacement of the patella is generally known 
to horseshoers as "stifle." In cases of this kind an 
experienced veterinarian should be called, as mistakes 
are often made in regard to this trouble. Cramps of 
the muscles of the thighs are sometimes taken for 
stifle. The displacement of the patella may occur in 
many different ways, as by falling, or slipping in rising 
in the stable. In most cases the cause is weakness and 
general debility, and in some instances it is brought on 
by lack of exercise. 

When a stifled horse is brought to the shop for shoe- 
ing, I would advise the farrier to first try the following 
method, and if it fails to bring the stifle back, the 
animal may be shod for stifle: Tie a rope around the 
ankle of the affected leg and pull the foot forward; 
now hold the foot in this position while one man 
pushes the horse over from the opposite side, so as to 
make him stand on the stifled leg, at the same time a 
third man should place his hands on the stifle and 
push it forcibly inward, and at the same time forward, 
so as to force the stifle back. If this manipulation is 



How to Shoe a Flat-footed or Weak-heeled Horse 175 



successful there is no need of shoeing the stifle. If it 
is not, proceed to shoe as follows: Make a shoe as 
shown in Fig. 57. This shoe is 
intended for the foot of the well 
leg. It will be seen from the 
shape of this shoe that the inten- 
tion is to put on a shoe that the 
horse cannot stand on. The horse 
is then compelled to stand on fhe 
stifled leg, pressing the stifle back 
with his own heft. As soon as the 
stifle is back in its place remove 
this cruel shoe. 

As soon as the stifle is back in its place the horse 
will seem to be all right, and the animal may walk or 
trot without any sign of lameness. The trouble may, 
however, return at the slightest provocation, the 
muscles being weakened it comes on easier after each 
performance, and the trouble gradually becomes a 
habitual weakness. 




Figure 57 



SEEDY TOE 



Seedy toe is a dry rot at the toe of the foot, extend- 
ing up between the wall and the laminae. It is caused 
by hot dry roads, or striking the toe against the pave- 
ments. It is sometimes the result of toe clip in the 
shoes. 

Remove the shoe and pare away any dry and mealy 
substance. Cut down the toe so as to take away all 
bearing from the toe against the shoe. Apply hot 
pine-tar, and fill the hole with a wad of tow dipped in 
the tar. The toe clips should be cut off, so that there 
will be no rubbing against the toe. 



176 



Standard Blacksmithing. 



PUNCTURED WOUNDS 

Pricking, or punctured wounds, are very common, 
and probably the most serious injury to the foot. 
Horses are pricked in many different ways: by nails, 
slivers, sharp stones or anything that will penetrate 
the sole and injure the foot. This trouble is more 
dangerous in the center and fore part of the foot than 
in the heels. 




Figure 58 Bi-treadle Grindstone 



If the horse is pricked by shoeing, pull the shoe off 
and examine the nails. The nail which has gone into 
the quick and caused the damage is generally wet and 
a bluish color. If this pricking has been deep, the 



How to Shoe a Flat-footed or Weak-heeled Horse 177 

first evidence of its existence may be the discharge of 
pus at the coronet. In such a case the place of 
pricking should be located and the horn cut away so 
as to give the pus a chance to work down. When the 
diseased parts have thus been exposed, the foot should 
be put in a boot of linseed poultice for a day or two, 
until the lameness and suppuration have disappeared. 
If the horse has been pricked so deep that the coffin 
bone has been injured, serious complications may 
follow. 

Cutting the horn away will often be found a difficult 
task with such tools as are at the command of the 
farrier. The foot being very sore the cutting must be 
done with a sharp knife. Most horseshoers sharpen 
their tools with a file. This makes a rough edge, 
which will neither work easy nor cut keen. Every 
shop should be equipped with one of the Cleveland 
Stone Company's bi-treadle grindstones. (See Fig. 58.) 
Even for ordinary shoeing the work is made easier and 
the workman who keeps the best tools is the one pre- 
ferred. 

In shoeing for pricking, use rubber shoes until the 
foot is sufficiently healed to stand iron shoes. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

KNEESPRUNG 

Sprung knees is the result of some disease not yet 
understood. We often find a horse with straight legs 
who will, without any noticeable cause, begin to set 
his knees forward, and in the course of a year or two 
the animal will have become totally useless. 

It was the custom of all old writers to accuse the 
horseshoer of being the source and fountain from 
which all the diseases of the horse's foot sprang; and 
it is a wonder that the horse has not been annihilated 
long ago, or at least all crippled beyond redemption. 
Even this disease has been attributed to the criminal 
stupidity of the farrier. I am happy to note that a 
change in this respect has begun to set in, and I will 
here quote Prof. A. Leautard, M.D., V.M. The pro- 
fessor says in his report to the Agricultural Depart- 
ment, Bureau of Animal Industry: "Sprung knees, 
though not positively the result of diseases of 
the tendons acting upon the knees, we venture 
to consider this deformity in connection with 
that which we have just discussed — knuckling 
fetlocks. It consists in such an alteration in the 
direction and articulation of the bones which form 
the various carpal joints. Instead of forming a 
vertical line from the cannon bone, they are so united 
that the knee is more or less bent forward, presenting 
a condition due to the retraction of two of the princi- 
pal muscles by which the cannon bone is flexed. This 



i8o Standard Blacksmithing. 

flexion of the knee may also be a congenital deformity 
and have continued from the foaling of the animal. 
Or, like clubfoot, it may be the result of heavy labor 
which the horse has been compelled to perform at too 
early an age It may also be due to other diseases 
existing in part below the knee joint. Whatever may 
be the originating cause of this imperfection it 
detracts very largely from the usefulness and value of 
a horse, disqualifying him for ordinary labor and 
wholly unfitting him for service under the saddle 
without jeopardizing the safety of the rider. If, how- 
ever, the trouble is known from the start, and is not 
the result of congenital deformity or weakness of the 
knee joint, or secondary to other diseases, rest, with 
fortifying friction, may sometimes aid in strengthening 
the joints; and- the application of blisters on the 
posterior part of the knee, from a short distance 
above, to a little below the joint, may be followed by 
some satisfactory result. But with this trouble, as 
with knuckling fetlocks, the danger of relapse must 
not be lost sight of, but kept in mind as a contingency 
always to occur." 

From the above we learn that it must be something 
else than bad shoeing which has caused this deformity. 
A horse with sprung knees is liable to become weak 
and debilitated from want of rest, and the strain 
enforced on the animal in order to stand. It will be 
noticed that a kneesprung horse cannot sleep stand- 
ing, for he will fall as soon as he goes to sleep. In a 
straight leg the center of gravity is down through the 
center of the leg and out at the heels. This is 
changed in a case of sprung knees. Here the center 
of gravity is through a line forward of the suspensory 
ligaments and the result is that the horse must stand 



^to N45> jl>i > S»>j N, 



2 

H 

ra 
o 

?) 

o 

o 

X 

n 

(A 

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o 

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1 82 Standard Black smithing, 

with an effort to hold the legs from doubling under 
him; hence it is tiresome to stand, and the horse will 
get worse and weaker. 

There is very little for the horseshoer to do in such 
cases. Shoes with high heels may relieve some of the 
strain on the back tendons. Showering with cold 
water several times a day for a week or two and rest 
in the pasture may help. 

HOW TO SHOE A VICIOUS HORSE 

Shoeing kicking horses is both dangerous and hard 
labor. It is no use for a man to wrestle with a horse, 
as we now have so many different kinds of devices for 
handling vicious horses that any shoer car^ have at 
least one, and even several of them, at his disposal for 
a nominal cost. 

One simple device is the twist. A twist can be 
made of a piece of a broom handle two feet long. 
Bore a hole in one end and put a piece of clothes line 
through, so as to make a loop six inches in diam- 
eter. Put this loop over the lip or the ears of the 
horse, and then twist until it hurts enough to give 
him something else than the shoeing to think of. 
This simple method will help in a majority of cases. 
Should the twist prove ineffectual, make a leather 
strap with a ring and buckle. Buckle this around the 
foot of the horse, tie a rope in the ring; next braid a 
ring into the tail and run the rope through this ring 
and back through the ring in the strap at the foot. 
Now pull in the rope. (See Fig. 59.) 

In this device the horse will hang with his leg in his 
tail, and although he may make some efforts to get 
loose in the start — probably throw himself — he will 
«oon submit and in most cases never move a muscle. 



Kneesprung 



183 



I have not yet had a case where I did not conquer the 
beast with this apparatus. 

Another device is the sling. (See Plate 28.) When 
the horse is ready to be raised, tie a rope around the 
foot to be shod, and when the horse is raised pull in 
the rope and the foot is easily managed. 




Figure 59 Device for Holding Unruly Horses 

Shoeing racks are also manufactured and sold to 
farriers. The Barcus Stocks manufactured by George 
Barcus & Co., Wabash, Ind., is the simplest and most con- 
venient device for holding vicious horses. See illustra- 
tion. 

No shoer should lose his temper in handling a 
nervous or vicious horse, and abuse the animal, for in 
nine cases out of ten hard treatment will irritate the 
horse and owner, too. Do not curse, be cool and use 
a little patience. To a nervous horse talk gently, as 
you would to a scared child. The horse is the noblest 
and most useful animal toman, but is often maltreated 
and abused. Many a man has no truer friend than the 
horse. Then treat him as a friend that nevsr will go 
back on you. A friend that will carry both you and 
your burdens, p^^'^'^t, long suffering, willing beyond 



i84 



Standard Blacksmithing. 



strength and endurance. Be a gentleman, even in 
your treatment of the horse. 




^ 



OVERREACHING 

Forging, or overreaching, is a bad habit, and a 
horse with this fault is not very valuable. "Clack 
forging" is meant by the habit of clacking the hind 
and fore shoes together. This kind of forging is not 
serious or harmful; it will only tend to wear off the 



Kneespriing 185 

toe of the hind foot and annoy the driver, possibly 
fatiguing the horse a little. The position of the foot 
at the time of the clack is different from what '<■ is 
supposed to be. The toe of the hind foot is generally 
worn off while no mark is made on the fore foot. 
From this we understand that the hind foot never 
touches the heel of the front foot, but the shoe. Just 
at the moment the fore foot is raised up enough on 
the heel to give room for the hind foot to wedge in 
under it, the hind foot comes flying under the front 
foot, and strikes the web of the shoe. This is the 
reason no mark is found on the front foot, while the 
hind foot is badly worn off. Overreaching can be 
overcome by shoeing, but the shoer must know what 
overreaching is. Overreaching is simply this: the 
horse breaks over with the hind feet quicker than he 
does with the front feet. In other words, he has more 
action in the hind than he has in the front feet, and 
the result is that the hind feet strike the front feet 
before the latter can get out of the way, often cutting 
the quarters badly, and giving rise to quarter cracks 
and horny patches over the heels. Overreaching 
means that the hind feet are crowding the front feet, 
and the remedy is: increase action in front, retard 
action in the hind feet. 

There are many different ideas about the remedy for 
this faQlt, and I am going to explain some of them in 
order that the reader may judge for himself which 
method is the best. 

One method is to shoe heavy forward and light 
behind. This is not exactly a bad idea, but it is not 
heroic enough to help except in light and sensitive 
cases. Another method is to shoe with sideweight 
shoes on the hind feet; the weight of course to be on 



i86 



Standard Black smithing. 




Figure 6i 

Wrong Method of Shoeing Hind 
Foot for Overreaching 



the outer side of the shoe. This is not a bad idea, 
and will, in many cases, help but it should be 

remembered that sideweights 
do not affect the gait except in 
a swift trot. 

Toe weights on the fore feet 
is another method, but this way 
of shoeing is not of much value. 
The remedy must be such that 
it will increase action in front 
and retard action behind. Toe 
weight will not accomplish this. 
The most culpable practice 
is that of shoeing with short-heeled shoes in front, and 
setting the hind shoes well under the foot, letting 
the toe stick out over the shoe on the hind feet. This 
is the idea of a remedy that strikes the mind of the 
average horseshoer first. It is the easiest way to get 
rid of the case, but the fault is aggravated, not cured. 
(See Fig. 6i.) So high an authority as A. A. Holcomb, 
D.V.S., in the work, Diseases of the Horsey published 
by the^Agricultural Department, at Washington, has 
recommended this absurd method, 
totally unproductive of any good. 
The shoe should never be set 
back under the toes of the hind 
feet. It will in most cases be 
found that the hind feet of over- 
reaching horses are shorter from 
the coronet to the toe than the 
front feet, and have been stubbed 
off, as shown in Fig. 62. 

The only way to stop overreaching is to make the 
hind foot longer than the front foot, the toe, or break- 




Figure 62 

Worn Hind Foot 



Kneesprung 



187 



ing-over point, being set forward not under. the center 
of the foot, as is done by the incorrect method just 
mentioned. The hind foot being shorter and the 
breaking-over point nearer the center of the foot the 
hind foot breaks over quicker than the front foot, and 
the result is overreaching. To remedy this we must 
find a way by which we can lengthen the toe of the 
hind foot and shorten the toe of the front foot. The 
front foot should be leveled, the wall pared down as 
much as it will stand and the toe shortened This 





Figure 63 
Front Shoe for Overreaching 



Figure 64 
Hind Shoe for Overreaching 



done, make a shoe as shown in Fig. 63. It will be 
seen that the toe-calk on this shoe is at the inner side 
of the web. This will set the breaking-over point 
back nearer the center of the foot and increase action 
in front. The toe-calks should be as short as possible 
with high heel-calks. The hind feet should be leveled 
and the heels rasped down as low as is advisable, 
leaving the toe long and high. The shoe should be 
made as shown in Fig. 64. It is noticed that this shoe 
is long, high toe-calk and low heel-calks. In nailing 
this shoe it should be set out on the toe to fully make 
up for any shortness in the foot and to stiffen the 



i88 



Standard Blacksmithing. 



joint, which will retard action. (See Fig. 65.) The 
shoe should also stick out behind; the idea being to 
shoe with a long shoe and set the breaking-over point 





Figure 65 

Right Method of Shoeing Hind Foot 

for Overreaching 



Figure 66 
Right Method of Shoeing Front Foot 
for Overreaching 



forward. The result of this is a slow action in the 
hind foot, and this accomplished, the fault is reme- 
died. This method is a sure cure for overreaching, if 
the idea is properly carried out. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

MULES AND MULE-SHOEING 

The term mule in its ordinary acceptation is gener- 
ally employed to designate the offspring of "cross" 
between the equine and asinine species. Mules are of 
two kinds: the mule proper, which is the hybrid 
product of a male ass with a mare; and the hinny, 
which is the offspring of a stallion and a female ass. 
The mule proper is the more valuable of the two, and 
it is to its production the attention of breeders is 
directed. Breeding of mules is difficult, owing to the 
antipathy of the equine species to the asinine. 
Besides this, abortion readily occurs and more care 
must be taken during pregnancy in breeding mules 
than is necessary in breeding horses or asses. The 
mule foal does not grow as fast, nor is it as strong on 
its limbs as the horse foal. It is of no use before it is 
four years old, because it is longer in reaching 
maturity; but it is useful for a longer period than the 
horse, often working until it is fifty years old, and will 
live till seventy-five. The mule and the ass enjoy an 
extraordinary immunity from disease. In the cam- 
paign in Egypt in 1882, the English horses suffered 
"very extensively from malarious fever, but the mules 
were entirely exempt. In our own late war the same 
conditions obtained. Nevertheless those diseases 
which attack the asinine species, generally run their 
course with great rapidity. Glanders, for example, 



igo 



The Horse and Horseshoeing. 



often appears in the chronic form in the horse, while 
in the mule and ass this disease is most acute. 

Mules are reared in North and South America, and 
the districts for breeding in the United States are 
Kentucky, Kansas and Missouri. 

The foot of the mule is different from that of the 
horse. In front it is round, but from the quarters back 
to the heels it is straight and perpen- 
dicular, having the shape of a con- 
tracted foot of a horse. In shoeing 
care should be taken that the hoof 
is not allowed to grow out too long. 
The heels should be pared down so 
that the frog is allowed to touch the 
ground. Mules often go lame on 
account of the heels growing almost 
together, pressing against the navicu- 
lar bone, and causing contraction and corns. The 
shoes should be made in the shape as shown in Fig. 
6^^ otherwise shoe as a horse. 




Figure 67 
Mule-shoe 



OXEN 

Oxen seem to have been the first of the domesticated 
animals, and were undoubtedly one of the most 
important agents in the development of early history. 
We find them mentioned in the oldest written records 
of the Hebrew and Hindu peoples, as well as figured on 
Egyptian monuments raised 2,000 years before the 
Christian era. Remains of domesticated specimens 
have been found in the Swiss lake dwellings, together 
with stone implements and other records of Neolithic 
man. In early communities an individual's wealth 
was measured by the number of cattle he possessed. 
Abraham, it is said, was rich in cattle. Oxen for a 



Mules and Mule-Shoeing 191 

long period formed, as they still do among Central 
African tribes, the favorite medium of exchange 
between individuals and nations. After the introduc- 
tion of metal money into ancient Greece, the former 
method of exchange was commemorated by stamping 
the image of an ox on the new money. The same 
custom has left its impression on the different lan- 
guages of Europe. The English word "pecuniary" 
and the Swedish word "pekuniara" are derived from 
"pecus" — cattle. The value the ancients attached to 
the ox is further shown by the sign of the Zodiac, in 
which a bull figures. The bull, according to the 
Hindus, was the first animal created by the three 
divinities, who were directed by the Supreme Deity to 
furnish the earth with 
animated beings. The 
ox also played an im- 
portant part in Greek 
and Roman mythol- 
ogy. The Hindus 
were not allowed to 

shed the blood of an Figure 68 Ox-shoe, Right Half 

ox. The Egyptians 

could only do so in their religious sacrifices to their 
gods. Hindus and Jews were both forbidden in their 
sacred writings to muzzle the ox while treading out the 
corn. To kill an ox wantonly was regarded as a great 
crime, punishable with exile among the Romans. 

OX-SHOEING 

' Since the ox has become a burden-carrying animal it 
has been found necessary to shoe his feet, in order to 
protect them against a foot wear detrimental to his 
usefulness as well as health, and to give him a sure 




Mules and Mule-Shoeing 



193 



foothold on icy or slippery roads. The ox being a 
less intelligent animal than the horse, must be shod in 
a different manner. In shoeing, the ox must be put in 





Figure 70 Figure 71 

Heller Bros'. Hammers for Horseshoers 

a stall or rack, where he is firmly held in a position 
from which there is no escape while the shoes are put on. 



194 



Standard Blacksmithing, 



OX-SHOES 

The first thing to be done when the oxen is brought 
to the shop is the making of the shoes. Ox-shoes 





Figure 72 Figure 73 

Heller Bros'. Hammers for Horseshoers. 

are different from other shoes, being made in halves, 
one half on each claw, thus the claws will be free and 



Mules and Mule-Shoeing 



195 



independent of each other, as in the unshod 

condition. Ox-shoes should be made of iron or 

soft steel l^-'Ve-"' narrow at 

the toe and wide at the heel, 

as shown in Fig. 68, with six 

nail holes for No. 5 nails. In 

preparing the foot for the shoe 

care should be taken not to 

rasp off too much from the 

foot, as the horn is thin, and if 

it is worn some it is still thinner. 

Rasp just as little as possible 

in order to get a bearing for the 

shoe. The shoe should also fit 

to the edges of the feet well. 

In nailing the shoes care must 

be taken not to drive the nails 

in to the quick. The shell is 

thin, especially at the heels. 

Do not draw the clinches hard, 

and remove the chip under the 

clinch with a narrow chisel. 

Do not rasp after the shoe is 

nailed. 

SHOEING RACK 

In Fig. 69 a shoeing rack is 
represented that will be found 
effective in holding any ox 
while shoeing. The size of the 
timber is 10 inches square, 12 

feet long, posts 8 inches square, 8 feet high. The 
blocks on the sides are for the feet to rest on held 
by the clevis. The illustration explains itself. 




Figure 74 

Heller Bros*. Hammer 

for Horseshoers 



196 Standard Black smithing. 

TRUSH 

Trush is a nasty disease of the foot, secreting 
unhealthy and offensive smelling matter from the cleft 
of the frog. All classes of horses are more or less sub- 
ject to ^this disease. The cause of the disease is 
mostly the filthy and unclean condition of the stable 
in which the animal is kept. Mares are liable to con- 
tract the disease in the hind feet, while the gelding 
and the stallion will develop it in the fore feet. Hard 
work on hard roads, a sudden change from dryness to 
excessive moisture may also induce this disease. The 
treatment consists in cleanliness. The diseased parts 
are to be pared away, the foot should then be poulticed 
for a day or two with boiled turnips, to which should 
be added a few drops of carbolic acid and a handful of 
powdered charcoal to absorb the secretion and destroy 
the offensive odor. The cleft of the frog should be 
filled with dry calomel, and the foot dressed with 
oakum and a roller bandage, which may be changed 
every other day. A long run in a clean pasture is a 
good thing. Shoes with high calks should be used 
when the horse must be shod, in order to raise the foot 
out of the mud as much as possible. Shoes with com- 
mon calks should be restored when the disease is 
cured. 

MANGE 

Mange is a skin disease, caused by an insect lodged 
in the skin, producing terrible itch and scab, causing 
the hair to fall off in patches, and the horse to rub 
against everything. 

Wash the affected parts in soap water quite warm, 
dry and then rub in the following ointment: oil of 
tar, 4 ounces; sulphur, 6 ounces; linseed oil, one pint 




RxnySone-i 

..SpHMs. 



Zargc- 
CannofU 




S>na2L 
Carmoru. 



J/'avicuiair 
CbfTvu 




(Fltxor 
\perA>rans. 

piJ-foroiuX. 



^nidomj/ oftfic foot. 



Soncsofff^e. fbot. 




tSxle. Sones. 



» Yti¥icu2arJ)i3ecisef, 



BING BONE AND NAVICULAR DISEASS 

Plate 32 



198 Standard Blacksmithing. 

WORMS 

Worms are of several kinds. Three kinds of tape- 
worms and as many as seven kinds of other worms 
have been found in the horse. For common worms 
give the following: calomel, one drachm; tartar 
emetic, one drachm; sulphate of iron, one drachm; 
linseed meal, half a pound. Mix and give in one dose 
for a few days, then give a purgative. This should be 
repeated in three weeks to get rid of the young worms 
left in the bowels in the form of eggs, which have 
since hatched out. 

LICE 

Make a strong tea of tobacco and wash the horse all 
over with it, and the lice v/ill die. 

BOTS 

For bots give a strong purgative for a time or two. 

COLIC 

Colic is a very common disease, divided into two 
kinds: spasmodic and flatulent. In spasmodic colic 
the pains are spasmodic; there are moments of relief 
when the patient is free from pain. Flatulent colic is 
recognized by bloating symptoms, and the pain is 
continual; the horse kicks, paws, tries to roll and lie 
on his back. Treatment for spasmodic colic: laud- 
anum, I ounce; whiskey, ^ pint; water, J pint. Mix 
well and give in one dose. If not relieved in half an 
hour repeat the dose. 

For flatulent colic: laudanum, | ounce, turpen- 
tine, I ounce; raw linseed oil, | pint; chloroform. 
I ounce; water, J pint. Mix and give in one dose 
Repeat in one hour if not relieved. 



o 

c 

Ui 

TJ 

n 

CD 
O 

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Ui 

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200 Standard Blacksmithing. 

DISTEMPER 

Distemper is a disease of the blood. Symptoms: 
swolling under the jaw, inability to swallow, a mucous 
discharge from the nose. Treatment: give the patient 
a dry and warm place and nourishing food. Apply 
hot linseed poultice to the swellings under the jaw and 
give small doses of cleansing powder for a few days. 

HYDROPHOBIA 

As there is no remedy discovered that will cure this 
horrible disease, the patient should be destroyed as 
soon as a case has been satisfactorily recognized, 

RINGWORM 

Ringworm is a contagious disease, and attacks aH 
kinds of animals. The cause is poverty and filth. It 
first appears in a round bald spot, the scurf coming off 
in scales. Treatment: Wash with soap and water 
and dry. Apply the following once a day: twenty- 
five grains of corrosive sublimate mixed in ^ pint of 
water; use till a cure is effected, 

INABILITY TO URINATE 

Symptoms: the patient is looking around on his 
sides, tries to urinate, lies down, rolls and stretches. 
Treatment: alum, J pound; oil of camphor, 3 drachms. 
Mix and give in three pills. Give one a day with a 
drench made of three spoons of saltpeter and one 
quart of water, divided into three doses; one a day to 
be given. 

RATTLESNAKE BITE 

When a horse has been bitten by a venomous ser- 
pent, such as a rattlesnake, copperhead, or other 




Sound hoc\. 





Cured spavin. 



Sfioirtn, 




Spavin, 



BONE SPAVIN^ 

Plate 26 



202 Standard Blacksmithing. 

snake, give the following: Hartshorn, i pint; whis- 
key, I pint, warm water, J pint. Mix and give in one 
dose. Repeat in one hour if not relieved. The wound 
should be burned at once with a hot iron, and a sponge 
soaked in ammonia kept on the wound for an hour 
or two. 

HOOF OINTMENT 

Mutton tallow, 4 ounces; resin, 4 ounces; pine tar, 
4 ounces; fish oil, 4 ounces; beeswax, 4 ounces. Mix 
well and apply every night. 

PURGATIVE 

Aloes, 3 drachms; ginger, i drachm; gamboge, 
2 drachms; gentian, i drachm; molasses to combine in 
a ball. Give in one dose. 

BALKING 

Balking is generally the result of abuse. The horse 
has been overloaded and then whipped to make him 
perform impossibilities, which he resents by balking. 

Many cruel methods for curing this habit have been 
tried, but kindness is the most successful. A balking 
horse should not be hitched to a load he cannot pull. 
The man that is used to the horse should drive him. 
When a balking spell comes on it is best to try to 
divert the mind of the animal from himself. A little 
tinkering around the horse, such as lifting the harness, 
pulling in the different straps, talking to him, and 
sometimes a handful of oats. But if there is no time to 
spend this way, pass a rope or chain around his neck 
and pull him along with another horse. If this has been 
done once the next time the horse will generally start 
at the sight of the chain, or rope, as the case may be. 



204 



Standard Black smithing. 



SPAVIN 



Spavin is a disease divided into four kinds: bone 
spavin, bog spavin, blood spavin and occult spavin. 
(See Plates 24 and 26.) 



RING BONE 



Ring bone is a disease of the coronet, caused by 
hard labor in early life, blows, bruises and sprains. 
Call a veterinarian as soon as a case is recognized. 
(See No. i, Plate 32.) 



DOCKING 



It is, and has been for some time, the fad to ride 
behind a horse with a docked tail. That this fad is 




Figure 75 Docking 



cruelty to animals is a question already settled by ^mr 
societies for the prevention of cruelty to animals. I 
will not describe the mode in which the horse is so 



Mules and Mule-Shoeing 



205 



mutilated and robbed of his only defence against 
insects, as well as a very ornamental part of his anat- 
omy. Let no man be so cruel as to dock his horse. 




Figure 77 Figure 78 

Rubber Pads Made by Revere Rubber Co. 



INDEX. 



TKQ-B 



Anatomy 107 

Annealing 18 

Axes 60 

Back-Dished Wheels 51 

Balking 202 

Band Saws 64 

Bars, The 109 

Bob Bunks, Hanging 70 

Bab Shoes, Cast Iron 6t, 

Boiler Tube, How to Tip 65 

Bots 198 

Brazing 20 

Brazing 69 

Brittle Hoofs 173 

Case Hardening 65 

Chisels 33 

Circles 32 

Circular Saws, Mending 63 

Colic 198 

Contraction 162 

Coronet 109 

Corns 1 50 

Corns, Shoeing for 157 

Corns, Their Symptoms 155 

Corns, Their Causes 151 

Otoss-pene Hammer 34 

Dish 92 

Distemper 200 



Index 207 



PAGE 



Docking' 204 

Drills for Chilled Iron 59 

Drill Press and How to Use 45 

Emery i^ 69 

Feet, How to Level 149 

Fire, The 11 

Fitting, Cold 113 

Fitting, Hot or Cold 1 1 1 

Flatters 36 

Forging 22 

Frog, The 109 

Fullers 38 

Gather, The 54 

Glass, To Drill 68 

Granite Tools 61 

Grindstones, To Make 69 

Gun Barrels, Browning for 68 

Hard Cement 6y 

'Hardening 19 

Hardening Files, Taps and Dies 61 

Hardening Fluid 56 

Harden Springs 64 

Heading Tools 39 

Hoof Ointment 202 

Horse, The 102 

Horse, Flat-footed, How to Shoe 172 

Horse, Weak-heeled, How to Shoe 172 

Horseshoeing 4 

Hydrophobia 200 

Interfering 137 

Iron 16 

Iron, Brassing 68 

Iron, To Copper Surface of 6y 



2o8 Index 



PAGE 



Iron, To Whiten 66 

Kneesprung 178 

Laminitis 167 

Lice 198 

Looking Glass, To Make 68 

Making Rings and Links 23 

Mange 196 

Metals, To Whiten 67 

Mill Picks 60 

Miscellaneous Recipes 6"/ 

Mules and Mule-Shoeing 189 

Nails 123-136 

Overreaching 184 

Oxen 190 

Ox-Shoes 194 

Ox-Shoeing 191 

Painting) 94 

Petrify, To 67 

P'iows 74 

Plows, Dip of 84 

Plow, Jumping 85 

Plow Shares, How to Plarden 8;^ 

Plows, Sharpening 85 

Plows, Tipping 84 

Power 93 

Primitive Shoes 100 

Punches, Blacksmith 39 

Pumiced Sole 170 

Purgative 202 

Quarters, The 109 

Rattlesnake Bite 200 

Resistance of Various Substances y2 

Rims 90 



Index 209 



PAGE 



Ring Bone 204 

Ringworm 200 

Rock Drills 56 

Sand Cracks 158 

Seedy Toe 175 

Set Hammer 37 

Setting Axles 53 

Share, Pointing 85 

Shares, Grinding and Polishing 86 

Shoe and How to Make It 114 

Shoeing 103-164 

Shoeing Mules 1S9 

Shoeifng Rack 195 

Shoes, Fitting 116 

Shoes, Old, How to Fit and Re-calk. 132 

Shoes, Removable Steel Calk 119 

Shoes, Steel Plugged 118 

Shoeing With Tips 143 

Shop, The 95 

Shop, Description of 103 

Sledge, The 9 

Slip Plow Shares y/ 

Smith, The 98 

Soft 67 

Sole, The no 

Spavin 204 

Speedy Cut 141 

Split Forging 43 

Spokes 89 

Square Angles 39 

Steel 17 

Steel, To Restore Burnt 63 

Stifle 174 



2IO Index, 

PAGi: 

Stringhalt 1/3 

Stone Hammers 62 

Stubbing Axles 55 

S. Wrench 43 

Swages ' ' ' 37 

Swage Block 3^^ 

Tire in Sections 5^ 

Tires, Expansion of 49 

Tire, Resetting 5^ 

Tire Setting, Cold 5^ 

Tires, Wagon and Carriage 48 

Tires, Welding 49 

Tensile Strength of Materials 72 

Tongs 41 

Tools, How to Use and Place 6 

Transparent Blue 67 

Trotter, How to Shoe I44 

Trush 196 

Twist Drill 59 

Urine 200 

Vicious Horse, How to Shoe 182 

Wagon Making 5 

Wagon Pole 9^ 

Wall, The 107 

Weights of Different Square Thin Metals 73 

Weights of Different Square and Round Bar Iron. . . 73 

Weld, Lap 27 

Weld, Butt 28 

Weld, Jump 29 

Weld, T 30 

Weld, Split 30 

Weld, Angle 31 

Welding Compounds 57 



'Index, 211 



PAGE 



.Welding, Fagot 26 

.Welding, The Difficulty of 26 

Welding 24 

Welding Cast Iron 19 

Well Drills 61 

Worms 198 

Wounds^ Punctured 176 



f,UR 31 1907 



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